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Article History

Received: 10 September 2025

Accepted: 8 July 2026

First Online: 1 September 2026

Ethics

Competing interests: The authors declare the following competing interests: G.C.S.S. and D.S.C.-J. have received research support from Roche Diagnostics Ltd for studies of diagnostics and screening for fetal growth restriction and preeclampsia. G.C.S.S.’s department has received payment from Roche for a talk given by G.C.S.S. (fetal growth restriction). G.C.S.S. has been a paid consultant to GSK (preterm birth) and has been a member of a Data Monitoring Committee for GSK trials of respiratory syncytial virus vaccination in pregnancy. G.C.S.S. is currently a member of a Data Monitoring Committee for respiratory syncytial virus vaccination in pregnancy (Moderna) and chairs a Data Monitoring Committee for a hyperemesis gravidarum therapeutic trial (NG Biopharmaceuticals). G.C.S.S. and D.S.C.-J. have received nonfinancial support from Illumina. G.C.S.S. and D.S.C.-J. have received support from Pfizer and Sera Prognostics (outside the scope of this work). Cambridge Enterprise (UK) has filed a patent relating to the work described in this paper, with G.C.S.S., D.S.C.-J., P.D.W.K., S.G., R.M., U.S. and I.L.M.H.A. as the named inventors. The patent has been licensed to Medicines360 (San Francisco, USA). G.C.S.S. and D.S.C.-J. are paid consultants to Medicines360. D.S.C.-J. is a paid consultant to GondolaBio. L.B. and A.-K.W. have received reagents for PlGF and/or sFlt1 from Roche, Perkin Elmer and Thermo Fischer. L.B. has received drugs and placebo for a preeclampsia intervention trial from Merck Damstadt. L.B. consults for DiaMedica and Arraka therapeutics, which are invested in finding new treatments for preeclampsia. The other authors declare no competing interests.