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Article History

Received: 20 April 2021

Accepted: 6 April 2022

First Online: 19 April 2022

Competing interests

: Dr. Darnall discloses that she receives royalties for four pain treatment books she has authored. She is the principal investigator for pain research grants and awards from the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the Patient-Centered Research Outcomes Research Institute (none specific to the current work). Dr. Darnall is chief science advisor at AppliedVR. She serves on the Board of Directors for the American Academy of Pain Medicine and is on the Board of Directors for the Institute for Brain Potential. She is a scientific member of the NIH Interagency Pain Research Coordinating Committee, a member of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Opioid Workgroup (2020–2021) and is a member of the Pain Advisory Group of the American Psychological Association. Dr. Mackey receives research funding from the NIH, FDA, and PCORI (administered through Stanford University). He is an unpaid advisor to the following organizations: American Chronic Pain Association (Scientific Advisory Board); Analgesic, Anesthetic, and Addiction Clinical Trial Translations, Innovations, Opportunities, and Networks (ACTTION), a public–private partnership with the FDA (Oversight committee); National Pain Advocacy Center (Science and Policy Advisory Council). There are no additional competing interests to declare.