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Article History

Received: 17 April 2025

Accepted: 3 July 2025

First Online: 25 July 2025

Declarations

:

: P.P., L.V., and S.V. are co-founders and Scientific advisors of Bac3Gel lda., Portugal, and are co-inventors of the patent IT102018000020242A “Three-dimensional substrate for microbial cultures”. P.P., L.V., and S.V. are co-inventors of the patent IT102020000014908A “Covalently cross-linked glycosylated mucin nanoparticles as systems for the delivery and release of active ingredients and biomolecules”. The authors declare no other competing interests.

: The experiments described in Sect. “Hemolytic activity” and "Phagocytic assay of mucosome-treated bacterial biofilms" included the use of biological materials from human healthy donors. Human blood obtained from healthy donors was provided by Fondazione IRCCS Policlinico San Matteo, Pavia (Italy), and isolated according to Italian national policies, including “Decreto Ministero della Salute 2 November 2015 n.69” and “Accordo Stato-Regioni n.225/CSR 13 December 2018”. The study and all experimental protocols were approved by the Ethics Committee of Fondazione IRCCS Policlinico San Matteo, Pavia (approval number not applicable). All methods were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations. Per the Declaration of Helsinki, informed consent was obtained from all donors prior to sample collection.