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Article History

Received: 30 October 2024

Accepted: 7 August 2025

First Online: 23 August 2025

Declarations

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: The work was funded by a research grant from the Forschungskommission of the Heinrich-Heine-University Düsseldorf to Michael Dietrich. Mustafa Sindi is funded by a DFG grant to Philipp Albrecht, number AL 1769/6-1. Apart from this, the authors declare that they have no additional conflict of interest related to the work presented. The following financial disclosures are unrelated to the work: SGM received honoraria for lecturing and travel expenses for34attending meetings from Almirall, Amicus Therapeutics Germany, Bayer Health Care, Biogen, Celgene, Diamed, Genzyme, MedDay Pharmaceuticals, Merck Serono, Novartis, Novo Nordisk, ONO Pharma, Roche, Sanofi-Aventis, Chugai Pharma, QuintilesIMS, and Teva. His research is funded by the German Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF), Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), Else Kröner Fresenius Foundation, German Academic Exchange Service, Hertie Foundation, Interdisciplinary Center for Clinical Studies (IZKF) Muenster, German Foundation Neurology, and by Almirall, Amicus Therapeutics Germany, Biogen, Diamed, Fresenius Medical Care, Genzyme, Merck Serono, Novartis, ONO Pharma, Roche, and Teva. MD received speaker honoraria from Merck and Novartis. PA received compensation for serving on Scientific Advisory Boards for Ipsen, Novartis, Biogen; he received speaker honoraria and travel support from Novartis, Teva, Biogen, Merz Pharmaceuticals, Ipsen, Allergan, Bayer Healthcare, Esai, UCB and Glaxo Smith Kline; he received research support from Novartis, Biogen, Teva, Merz Pharmaceuticals, Ipsen, Bristol-Myers Squibb and Roche. The other authors report no disclosures. TR reports grants from German Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Technology, during the conduct of the study; grants and personal fees from Sanofi-Genzyme; personal fees from Biogen; personal fees and nonfinancial support from Merck Serono; personal fees from Roche, Teva, Alexion, Argenx, UCB, and BMS outside the submitted work. Author Philipp Albrecht is employed by Maria Hilf Clinics GmbH, Mönchengladbach. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

: All animal experiments in this study were conducted in strict compliance with the ethical guidelines and regulations of the State Office for Nature, Environment and Consumer Protection of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany “Landesamt für Natur, Umwelt und Verbraucherschutz Nordrhein-Westfalen, Deutschland”. The study protocol was reviewed and approved under the approval number Az. 81-02.04.2019.A063. We confirm that all experiments were performed in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations and are reported following the ARRIVE guidelines (PLoS Biol 8(6), e1000412, 2010). The mice used in this study, as described in “Animals, animal models, treatment” section of this manuscript, included C57BL/6J mice obtained from Janvier Labs and NOD/ShiLtJ mice bred in the animal facility at the University of Düsseldorf (ZETT). Both strains had ad libitum access to chow and drinking water, and measures were taken to minimize suffering. Anesthesia and euthanasia were administered in accordance with AVMA guidelines to ensure humane treatment. Statistical analyses appropriate for each outcome were conducted to assess the results. No client-owned animals were involved in this study; therefore, informed consent from owners was not required.