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Article History

Received: 14 February 2025

Accepted: 13 August 2025

First Online: 23 August 2025

Declarations

:

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: The study was conducted in accordance with the guidelines of the Helsinki Declaration. The MIMIC-IV database was supported by grants from the National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering (NIBIB) of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) under award numbers R01-EB001659 (2003–2013) and R01-EB017205 (2014–2022) and approved by the Institutional Review Boards of Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center (Boston, MA) and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Cambridge, MA). The eICU-CRD Database was released under the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) safe harbor provision. The re-identification risk was certified as meeting safe harbor standards by Privacert (Cambridge, MA) (HIPAA Certification no. 1031219-2). Informed consent was waived by the Institutional Review Boards of Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center (Boston, MA) and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Cambridge, MA) for the MIMIC-IV database, and by Philips Healthcare for the eICU-CRD database, due to the retrospective nature of the study, and the data are publicly available in the MIMIC-IV and eICU-CRD databases.