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Article History

Received: 15 April 2025

Accepted: 28 August 2025

First Online: 16 October 2025

Declarations

:

: OAA has received a speaker’s honorarium from Lundbeck, Janssen, Otsuka and Lilly, and is a consultant to Coretechs.ai and Precision Health. LTW is a minor shareholder of baba.vision. KMM has served on scientific advisory board for Alexion, received speaker honoraria from Biogen, Novartis, Roche and Sanofi, and has participated in clinical trials organized by Biogen, Merck, Novartis, Otivio, Roche and Sanofi. EAH received honoraria for advisory board activity from Sanofi-Genzyme, and his department has received honoraria for lecturing from Biogen and Merck. ØT received speaker honoraria from and served on scientific advisory boards of Biogen, Sanofi-Aventis, Merck, and Novartis, and has participated in clinical trials organized by Merck, Novartis, Roche and Sanofi. The remaining authors declare no other competing interests.

: The study was approved by the Norwegian Regional Committees for Medical and Health Research Ethics (REK, 814351). The OFAMS-study and the 10-year follow-up were previously approved by REK (2016/1906) and registered as clinical trial (clinicaltrials.gov identifier: NCT00360906). Ethical approval for the different brain age training datasets was obtained (REK 567301, PVO 17/21624), as well as for the longitudinal validation set (Bergen Breakfast Scanning Club, REK 238310), and the cross-sectional MS data (REK 2011/1846, REK 2016/102). All participants gave their written informed consent. All methods were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations (Declaration of Helsiniki).