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Article History

Received: 12 May 2025

Accepted: 11 September 2025

First Online: 15 October 2025

Competing interests

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: This study utilized the publicly available DRIVE Dataset, and therefore, no consent to participate was required.

: Since no private dataset was used in this research, no consent for publication is necessary.

: All experimental protocols were conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments. The MRI datasets used in this study (BraTS 2019, BraTS 2020, and BraTS 2021) are publicly available and fully anonymized; no personal identifying information of participants is included. As the study involved only secondary analysis of de-identified, publicly accessible data, no additional ethical approval or informed consent from individual participants was required, in accordance with the guidelines of the ethics committee and Scientific Reports editorial policy.