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Authors
McCormack, Mhairi J.
Banda, Louis
Kasenda, Stephen
Hughes, Ellen C.
Leonhard, Lina
Mwale, Annie
McLean, Estelle
Price, Alison
Crampin, Amelia
Chaima, David
Amoah, Abena S.
Nyirenda, Tonney S.
Ho, Antonia
Willett, Brian J.
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
Wellcome Trust (217073/Z/19/Z)
Medical Research Council (MC_UU_00034/6)
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Article History
Received: 2 June 2025
Accepted: 29 September 2025
First Online: 29 October 2025
Declarations
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: AH has received funding from MRC, BSAC, and Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation unrelated to this work, and has served as a clinical consultant for the WHO Global Influenza Programme since November 2023. BJW received funding through UKRI. The other coauthors declare no competing interests.
: Ethical approval was granted by the Malawi College of Medicine Research Ethics Committee (P11/20/3177–11th December 2020) and the University of Glasgow College of Medicine, Veterinary and Life Sciences Research and Ethics Committee (200200056–8th February 2021). All procedures were performed in compliance with the relevant laws and institutional guidelines. The study adhered to the Declaration of Helsinki principles.
