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Authors
Mushunje, Prince K.
Sovershaeva, Evgeniya
Olwagen, Courtney P.
Madhi, Shabir
Odland, Jon Ø.
Ferrand, Rashida A.
Nicol, Mark P.
Abotsi, Regina E.
Dube, Felix S.
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
University of Cape Town Building Research Active Academic Stuff
Molecular and Cell Biology Equity Development Programme, University of Cape Town, South Africa
Dube Lab, Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Cape Town, South Africa
University of Cape Town Postgraduate Funding
Global Health and Vaccination Research Programme (GLOBVAC) the Medical Research Council of Norway
Australian National Health and Medical Research Council Investigator Grant (APP1174455)
Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA) through the Organization of Women in Science for the Developing World (OWSD) PhD Fellowship
Margaret McNamara Education Grants
L'Oréal UNESCO For Women in Science PhD Fellowship
National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Global Health Research Unit on Mucosal Pathogen, United Kingdom (16/136/46)
National Research Foundation (112160)
Future Leaders African Independent Research Fellowship
University of Capetown
Allergy Society of South Africa
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Article History
Received: 26 May 2025
Accepted: 8 October 2025
First Online: 7 November 2025
Declarations
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: The authors declare no competing interests.
: The parent study (BREATHE) was approved by the Human Research and Ethics Committee of the University of Cape Town - UCT HREC (HREC/REF:754/2015), the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine Ethics Committee (reference 8818), the Harare Central Hospital Ethics Committee and Medical Research Council of Zimbabwe (reference MRCZ/A/1946), the College of Medicine Research Ethics Committee Malawi (reference P.04/15/1719) and the Regional Committee for Medical and Health Research Ethics, Northern Norway (reference 2015/1650). The University of Oxford waived approval. Additional ethical approval was received for this sub-study from the UCT HREC (HREC/REF: 092/2019). No additional data were collected other than those approved in the parent study. Written informed consent and assent were given by guardians and participants, respectively. Participants who were 18 years old and above consented independently at the time of enrolment. All data obtained and generated during the study were kept confidential. This research was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.
