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Article History

Received: 30 June 2025

Accepted: 28 October 2025

First Online: 27 November 2025

Declarations

:

: The author(s) declare no competing interests.

: This study received ethical approval from the Institutional Review Boards of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Protocol 0403000206) and Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, with a waiver of informed consent due to the retrospective analysis of de-identified data. The data from MIMIC-IV v3.1 complies with the database’s data use agreement (Liang Sun Certification No. 14433663), and the study was classified as non-human subject research by both IRBs. All procedures adhered to the ethical principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki (2013 revision), with informed consent waived as the research involved pre-existing, de-identified data without participant interaction.

: This study does not include any data from individual persons.