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Article History

Received: 27 August 2025

Accepted: 29 November 2025

First Online: 29 December 2025

Declarations

:

: The author declares no competing interests, financial or otherwise.

: All methods were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations. All experimental protocols and analyses were conducted in accordance with the standard ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. This study leverages secondary data from publicly available repositories: MNIST, CIFAR-10, and the ISIC Archive/HAM10000. The research does not require specific approval from an IRB or licensing committee, as the datasets are anonymous, pre-existing, and do not involve interaction with human subjects. This research also utilises datasets in a manner consistent with the usage licenses provided by the respective repositories.

: The original data collectors obtained informed consent for all subjects and/or their legal guardian(s) at the time of image acquisition. All data used in this study are fully anonymized and de-identified.