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Article History

Received: 31 July 2025

Accepted: 1 December 2025

First Online: 11 December 2025

Declarations

:

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: This study was conducted in accordance with ethical guidelines for software engineering research and was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of Anhui Institute of Information Technology (Ethics Approval Reference: AIIT-CSE-2024-015, approved on March 15, 2024). The research exclusively utilized publicly available open-source software repositories and datasets that are freely accessible under respective open-source licenses. All data collection and analysis procedures complied with the terms of use of the respective software repositories, including Apache Software Foundation, Eclipse Foundation, and Mozilla Foundation guidelines. No human subjects were involved in this research, and all software projects analyzed were publicly available with appropriate licensing for academic research purposes.