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Article History

Received: 20 August 2025

Accepted: 12 February 2026

First Online: 8 March 2026

Declarations

:

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: This study is based exclusively on secondary analysis of images obtained from publicly available, open-access benchmark datasets (Refs. – ). The datasets include images in which human faces may be identifiable; however, informed consent for data collection and public release was obtained by the original dataset creators, in accordance with their respective ethical and legal frameworks. No new human data were collected, and no additional identifying information was generated by the authors. Therefore, separate ethical approval or informed consent was not required for this study.