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Article History

Received: 28 December 2025

Accepted: 19 February 2026

First Online: 17 March 2026

Declarations

:

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of North China University, Shanxi University, & Taiyuan Preschool Teachers College. All procedures involving human participants were conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

: All authors have read and approved the final manuscript for publication. The positional tracking datasets used in this study were provided under formal agreements with professional football leagues and authorized data partners. Informed consent for the collection and research use of anonymized tracking data was obtained from all individual players by the respective leagues and clubs as part of their standard participation agreements and data governance policies. No personally identifiable information is used or disclosed in this study.