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Authors
Frater, J.
Nicourt, M.
Landi, F.
Maxwell, B.
Thiodet, J.
Mestrallet, E.
Warr, S. J.
Pizarro, M.
Fa, J. E.
Lemoine, S. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9853-5246
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Article History
Received: 29 November 2025
Accepted: 12 March 2026
First Online: 19 March 2026
Declarations
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: The authors declare no competing interests.
: All observational data was non-invasively collected in accordance with the guidelines established by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. Even if the Gibraltar macaques are regularly in contact with humans, a minimum distance of 2 m to the focal individuals was respected during behavioral follows, and hygienic measures were taken when appropriate (washing hands, wearing facial masks). The presentation experiments were also done carefully, wearing hand gloves when manipulating the tray, and using sterilized spoons to place the soil samples on it. The presented soil samples were discarded between consecutive individual presentations. All data collection protocols have been approved by the Ethics Review Board of the Archaeology Department, University of Cambridge (approvals Lemoine_ETHICS_11112022; Lemoine_ETHICS_06062023; Lemoine_ETHICS_15112023, Lemoine_ETHICS_18112024), and by the Department of the Environment, Sustainability, Climate Change and Heritage from HM Government of Gibraltar.
