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Article History

Received: 2 August 2025

Accepted: 23 March 2026

First Online: 2 April 2026

Declarations

:

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: Ethical approval for the use of the hospital dataset comprising 1.5 million de-identified patient records was obtained from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at City Hospital - Medical Complex , Bahawalpur , Pakistan , under (Approval No.: CHMC/IRB/2025/067). The MIMIC-III (available at: ) and i2b2-based dataset (available at: ) are publicly available, fully anonymized datasets released for research purposes in compliance with applicable privacy and ethical standards.

: The IRB waived the requirement for informed consent in accordance with national ethical regulations, considering the anonymized and non-interventional nature of the study.