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Article History

Received: 12 February 2026

Accepted: 30 April 2026

First Online: 13 May 2026

Declarations

:

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: This study involved the collection and analysis of drinking water samples and did not involve experimental animals or direct interventions with human subjects. All data were obtained from the “China Disease Prevention and Control Information System” database, which collects routine drinking water monitoring data as mandated by national regulations. The data were anonymized prior to the analysis and did not include any personally identifiable information. According to Article 32 of the “Measures for the Ethical Review of Life Science and Medical Research Involving Human Subjects” (National Health Commission of the PRC, 2023), research using anonymized information data that causes no harm to human subjects and does not involve sensitive personal information is exempt from institutional review board approvals. Therefore, formal ethical approval was not required for this study.