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Article History

Received: 10 July 2025

Accepted: 19 May 2026

First Online: 21 May 2026

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate: The DHS surveys are carried out in accordance with the principles outlined in the Helsinki Declaration for biomedical research and receive approval from relevant ethical review bodies, including Tanzania’s National Institute for Medical Research (NIMR) and informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to data collection. This study utilized secondary data from the 2022 Tanzania Demographic and Health Survey and Malaria Indicator Survey, which had already received ethical clearance from the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) for data collection. Therefore, no further ethical approval was required for this analysis. However, formal permission to access and use the data was obtained from USAID MEASURE, the official custodian of the DHS datasets.

Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.

Consent for publication: Not applicable.