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Article History

Received: 22 April 2025

Accepted: 19 May 2026

First Online: 22 May 2026

Declarations

:

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: According to China’s Measures for the Ethical Review of Life Science and Medical Research Involving Human Beings and the relevant institutional requirements of our hospital, retrospective studies using de-identified data generated during prior routine clinical care may be exempt from ethics review and the requirement for informed consent, provided that the subjects cannot be identified, no additional intervention is involved, and no personal privacy or commercial interests are implicated.External validation data were sourced from the Medical Information Mart for Intensive Care IV (MIMIC-IV) database, a publicly available dataset derived from electronic health records at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center. The corresponding author, Zhang Yu, completed an online course from the National Institutes of Health and passed the Human Research Participant Protection Training (ID: 66963714). The Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology approved our use of this database. As our research utilized anonymized data from the database, the requirement for informed consent was waived, and this study adheres to the ethical standards outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki.

: During the preparation of this manuscript, the authors used ChatGPT for grammar correction and language polishing. After employing this tool, the authors carefully reviewed and edited the content as needed and take full responsibility for the integrity and accuracy of the manuscript.