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Article History

Received: 9 February 2026

Accepted: 3 June 2026

First Online: 9 June 2026

Competing interests

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: This study used de-identified, previously collected data from the Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI) database. The ADNI study protocols were approved by the Institutional Review Board of the University of Southern California (USC IRB) and by the institutional review boards/ethics committees of the participating ADNI clinical sites. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants and/or their legally authorized representatives by the ADNI investigators at the participating sites prior to enrollment. The present analysis did not involve new participant recruitment, new data collection, direct participant contact, intervention, access to identifiable personal information, or redistribution of participant-level data. No additional participant recruitment or informed-consent procedure was undertaken by the authors for this secondary analysis. All methods were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations, including the Declaration of Helsinki, Good Clinical Practice guidelines, applicable institutional regulations, and ADNI data-use policies.