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Authors
Mackintosh, Gemma
Atkinson, Mark
Renner, Elizabeth
Caldwell, Christine A. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7362-2554
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
H2020 European Research Council (648841)
H2020 European Research Council (648841)
H2020 European Research Council (648841)
H2020 European Research Council (648841)
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Article History
Received: 29 June 2025
Accepted: 14 July 2026
First Online: 19 September 2026
Declarations
Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
Ethical approval: Experiment 1 (Adults) was approved by the University of Stirling General University Ethics Panel with approval reference number GUEP 295, and all participants gave full informed, written consent before the experiment took place. Experiment 2 (Children) was approved by the University of Stirling General University Ethics Panel with approval reference number GUEP 557. Formal consent to conduct Experiment 2 was obtained from the Highland Council education manager, and all head teachers gave consent for the experimenter to enter the school. Full informed, written consent was obtained from each child’s parent or legal guardian prior to testing, confirming that the child was permitted to take part in the experiment, and that this could be done during class time. Participants and their teachers also gave verbal consent before the participant left the classroom to participate in the study. All experiments were performed in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations and in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.
