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Article History

Received: 16 June 2026

Accepted: 25 August 2026

First Online: 23 September 2026

Declarations

Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethics approval: This study used previously collected, publicly available and de-identified ECG datasets: PTB-XL, the PTB Diagnostic ECG Database and STAFF III. All datasets were accessed through PhysioNet under their respective data-use terms. No new participants were enrolled, no intervention was performed and no identifiable patient-level information was accessed for the present analysis. The original dataset creators obtained ethics approval and/or participant consent according to the requirements of the source studies. Because the present work was limited to secondary analysis of de-identified public data, additional prospective participant consent was not required.