Hu, Xin
Wang, Ping
Wang, Kangxing
Zou, Yugang
Article History
Received: 16 May 2026
Accepted: 27 August 2026
First Online: 2 October 2026
Declarations
Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
Ethics approval and consent to participate: The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. Ethical approval and individual patient consent were waived for all three databases (MIMIC-IV, MIMIC-III-CareVue, and eICU-CRD) because they contain de-identified health information that is publicly available for research purposes. The use of the MIMIC-IV and MIMIC-III databases for this study was specifically approved by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Institutional Review Board. The authorized researcher (certification number 13024213) completed the required data user training, which granted access approval for all three publicly available cohorts, including eICU-CRD.