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Article History

Received: 23 July 2026

Accepted: 3 September 2026

First Online: 6 September 2026

Declarations

Competing interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Ethical approval: The studies involving humans were approved by the Institutional Review Boards of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center. This study was based on secondary analysis of the publicly available, de-identified MIMIC-IV and eICU-CRD databases. The investigator, Zijian Huang, completed the required human subjects research training and obtained data access authorization (certification number 74183678). Informed consent and additional ethical approval were therefore not required for this study.