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Article History

Received: 1 July 2026

Accepted: 3 September 2026

First Online: 9 September 2026

Ethics

Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethics approval: The animal procedures conducted in this study were reviewed and approved by Yamaguchi University under the Animal Use Protocol entitled “Estimation of the annual reproductive rate of free-ranging dogs” (Animal Use Protocol No. 648; Approval/Receipt No. 07–20). Capture and population management of free-ranging dogs were conducted as part of an ongoing municipal management program. Ovariohysterectomy was performed by licensed veterinarians at a local animal hospital using surgical procedures equivalent to those routinely applied to owned dogs. General anesthesia was induced by intravenous administration of propofol and maintained with inhaled isoflurane. Following surgery, the dogs received appropriate postoperative care and were transferred to a shelter operated by a volunteer organization, where they were maintained under appropriate husbandry conditions. All procedures were carried out in accordance with relevant institutional guidelines and regulations and complied with applicable Japanese legislation governing animal welfare and management. The study is reported in accordance with the ARRIVE guidelines, where applicable.