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Article History

Received: 21 July 2025

Accepted: 27 November 2025

First Online: 22 January 2026

Competing interests

: G.V. Long has served as a consultant advisor for Agenus, Amgen, Array Biopharma, AstraZeneca, Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals Inc., BioNTech SE, Boehringer Ingelheim International GmbH, Bristol Myers Squibb, Evaxion Biotech A/S, GI Innovation Inc., Hexal AG (Sandoz Company), Highlight Therapeutics S.L., IOBiotech, Immunocore Ireland Limited, Innovent Biologics USA Inc., Iovance Biotherapeutics Inc., Merck Sharpe & Dohme, Novartis Pharma AG, OncoSec Medical Australia, PHMR Limited, Pierre Fabre, Regeneron Pharmaceuticals, Scancell Limited, and SkylineDX BV. A.M. R.A. Scolyer has received fees for professional services from MetaOptima Technology Inc., F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Evaxion, Provectus Biopharmaceuticals Australia, Qbiotics, Novartis, Merck Sharp & Dohme, NeraCare, Amgen Inc., Bristol Myers Squibb, Myriad Genetics, GlaxoSmithKline, SkylineDx BV, and IO Biotech ApS. A.M. Menzies is on the advisory board of BMS, Merck (MSD), Novartis, Roche, Pierre Fabre and Qbiotics. I. Pires da Silva is on the advisory board of Merck Sharp & Dohme; has received fees for professional services from Roche, Bristol Myers Squibb, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Novartis, and Pierre Fabre, Regeneron and Strand; and has had travel support from Bristol Myers Squibb and Merck Sharp & Dohme. M.S. Carlino has served on advisory boards or as a consultant for Amgen, BMS, Eisai, Ideaya, Merck, Sharp & Dohme (MSD), Nektar, Novartis, Oncosec, Pierre-Fabre, Qbiotics, Regeneron, Roche, Merck, Moderna and Sanofi and received honoraria from BMS, MSD and Novartis. All other authors declare no conflicts of interest.