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Article History

Received: 17 September 2025

Accepted: 25 January 2026

First Online: 4 February 2026

Competing interests

: J.V.H. reports receiving advisory/consulting fees from AstraZeneca, Boehringer-Ingeheim, Catalyst, Genentech, GlaxoSmithKline, Guardant Health, Foundation Medicine, Hengrui Therapeutics, Eli Lilly, Novartis, Spectrum, Sanofi, Takeda Pharmaceuticals, Mirati Therapeutics, Bristol-Myers Squibb, BrightPath Biotherapeutics, Janssen Global Services, Nexus Health Systems, EMD Serono, Pneuma Respiratory, Kairos Venture Investments, Leads Biolabs, and RefleXion, and research funding from GlaxoSmithKline, AstraZeneca, and Spectrum, all outside of the submitted work. N.I.V. receives consulting fees from Regeneron, Amgen, Xencor, AstraZeneca, Tempus, Pfizer, Summit, OncoHost, Guardant, and ImmunityBio, and research funding from EMD Serono, IDEAYA, Amgen, Summit, Regeneron, Sanofi, BMS, and OncoHost, outside the submitted work. J.Z. reports grants from Merck, Novartis, Johnson and Johnson, personal fees from BMS, AZ, Novartis, Johnson and Johnson, GenePlus, Hengrui, and Innovent, outside the submitted work. J.W. reports research funding from Siemens Healthcare. The other authors declare no competing interests in the submitted work.