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Article History

Received: 28 July 2025

Accepted: 15 February 2026

First Online: 28 February 2026

Competing interests

: G.F. has received royalties from Wolters Kluwer; been an advisor for AbbVie, Jubilant, BostonGene, Teon, Merck, Sanofi, BridgeBio, and Beijing Avistone (2024); received a speaker honorarium from Clinical Care Options; received travel funds from Sarah Cannon Research Institute, Amgen, Synthorx/Sanofi, GSK, and Cyteir; and received research funding from Abbisko, ABL Bio, Abbvie, ADC Therapeutics, Accutar, Agenus, Aileron, Alterome, Amgen, Arcus, ARMO/Eli Lilly, Artios, Astellas, AstraZeneca, Bayer, BeiGene, Beijing Avistone, Bioatla, Bioinvent, Biomea Fusion, Bicycle, Black Diamond, Boehringer Ingelheim, Boundless, Centessa, Conjupro, Cyteir, Cytomx, D3 Bio, Daiichi, Deciphera, Dynamicure, Eikon, Eli Lilly, Epizyme, Erasca, Exelixis, Freenome, Fujifilm, GSK, Harbour BioMed, Hutchison MediPharma, IGM Biosciences, IDEAYA, Ikena, Immuneering, Immunitas, ImmunoGen/MacroGenics, Incyte, Jacobio, Jazz, Jounce, Jubilant, Kineta, Kumquat, Kura, Loxo/Bayer, Medilink, Merck, Metabomed, Mirati, ModeX, Molecular Templates, Nammi, Navire/BridgeBio, NGM Bio, NiKang, Novartis, Nuvalent, Nuvectis, Oncorus, Oncusp, OnKure, Phanes, Poseida, Prelude, PureTech, Pyramid, Pyxis, Quanta, RasCal, Regeneron, Relay, Rgenix, Ribon, Roche, Samumed, Sapience, Sarah Cannon Development Innovations, Seagen, Silicon/Stingthera, Simcha, Sirnaomics, Synthorx/Sanofi, Tachyon, Takeda, Tallac, Tango, Tarus, Tarveda, Teneobio, Tesaro, TORL, Turning Point, Xencor, and Zhuhai Yufan. D.V.V. has been employed by Navire Pharma. J.M. has been an advisor for Astra Zeneca, Janssen, Abbvie, Jazz, Sanofi, Bristol Myers Squibb, Takeda, and Daiichi Sankyo; been a consultant for Regeneron and Bristol Myers Squibb; been a Data Safety and Monitoring Committee member for Bioatla; and received research funding from NCI/ARPA-H and Astra Zeneca. S.S. has been a consultant and/or served on the speaker bureau for Eisai and BMS. A.R.K. has received grants and/or personal fees from Pfizer, AstraZeneca, Bristol Myers Squibb, EMD Serono, Exelixis, Genentech, Gilead Sciences, Immunomedics, Novartis, Seattle Genetics/Astellas, Amgen, Astellas Medivation, AVEO, Eisai, Genentech/Roche, Janssen, Merck, Myovant Sciences, Sanofi, Bayer, Arvinas, Mirati Therapeutics, and POINT Biopharma and has stock and other ownership interests in ECOM Medical. L.W. has been employed by Navire Pharma. F.R. has received consulting fees from Eikon Therapeutics. E.L. has received consulting fees from Navire Pharma for performing the data analyses and summaries for the present study, which may be considered a potential conflict of interest with respect to the subject matter of this manuscript. A.I.S. has been a consultant or advisor for Incyte, Amgen, Novartis, Mirati Therapeutics, Jazz Pharmaceuticals, Takeda, Janssen Research & Development, Mersana, Gritstone bio, Daiichi Sankyo/AstraZeneca, Regeneron, Eli Lilly, Black Diamond Therapeutics, Sanofi, ArriVent Biopharma, Synthekine, GSK, Crispr Therapeutics, and Revolution Medicines and has received research funding from LAM Therapeutics, Roche, AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Astellas Pharma, MedImmune, Novartis, Incyte, AbbVie, Ignyta, Takeda, Macrogenics, CytomX Therapeutics, Astex Pharmaceuticals, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Loxo, Gritstone bio, Plexxikon, Amgen, Daiichi Sankyo, ADC Therapeutics, Janssen Oncology, Rubius, Synthekine, Mersana, Blueprint Medicines, Regeneron, Alkermes, Revolution Medicines, Medikine, Black Diamond Therapeutics, BluPrint Oncology, Nalo Therapeutics, Scorpion Therapeutics, ArriVent Biopharma, Prelude Therapeutics, and Eli Lilly. D.S. has been an employee and shareholder of Texas Oncology, a shareholder of NEXT Oncology, received honoraria from Syneos, received consulting fees from Guidepoint, received advisory board payments from Revolution Medicines and Nimbus Therapeutics, and received ongoing or past institutional research funding for studies from Abbvie, Acrivon Therapeutics, ADC Therapeutics, Aprea Therapeutics, Ascentage Pharma Group, Astellas, Avenzo Therapeutics, Biomea Fusion, Boehringer Ingelheim, BJ Bioscience, BioNTech, Bristol Myers Squibb, Compugen, Day One Biopharma, Dicerna/Novo Nordisk, Dren Bio, Exelixis, Fate Therapeutics, Gilead Sciences, GSK, Haihe Pharmaceutical, Iconovir Bio, Ideaya Biosciences, Immuneering, Impact Therapeutics, Incendia, Kura Oncology, MediLink Therapeutics, Mirati Therapeutics, ModeX Therapeutics, Monopteros Therapeutics, Navire Pharma, Nimbus Therapeutics, NGM Biopharmaceuticals, OBI Pharma, OncoResponse, Pfizer, Revolution Medicines, Step Pharmaceuticals, Symphogen, Tachyon Therapeutics, Teon Therapeutics, Tyligand Bioscience, Vincerx Pharma, Vividion Therapeutics, ZielBio, and Zymeworks. I.G.-L. has been a consultant or advisor for SOTIO, AbbVie, Revolution Medicines, Eli Lilly, and Quanta Therapeutics and received research funding from EcoR1, Guidepoint, Novartis, Bayer, Bristol Myers Squibb, Pfizer, MedImmune, Eli Lilly, Incyte, GSK, Tolero Pharmaceuticals, BridgeBio Pharma, Jacobio, Repare Therapeutics, Sumitomo Dainippon Pharma Oncology, Revolution Medicines, Yingli Pharma, Quanta Therapeutics, 280 BIO, ABM Therapeutics, and Tango. D.S.H. has been a consultant or advisor for AbbVie, Acuta, Alpha Insights, Amgen, Axiom, BeiGene, Boxer Capital, COR2ed, EcoR1, Erasca, GLG, Guidepoint, ImmunoGen, Kestrel Therapeutics, Medscape, Mirati Therapeutics, Pfizer, Revolution Medicines, T-Knife, and WebMD; received research funding from AbbVie, Adaptimmune, Adlai-Nortye, Amgen, Astellas, AstraZeneca, Bayer, BeiGene USA, Bristol Myers Squibb, Eisai, Eli Lilly, Endeavor, Erasca, Exelixis, F. Hoffmann-La Roche, Genentech, ImmunoGen, Merck, Mirati, NCI-CTEP, Novartis, Pfizer, Revolution Medicines, STCube, TCR2, and VM Oncology; received for travel, accommodations, and expenses from the American Association for Cancer Research, ImmunoGen, Medscape, and Telperian; and has had other ownership interests in Molecular Match, OncoResponse, and Telperian. The other authors (C.B.X., M.K., and Y.P.) do not have a competing interest.