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Article History

Received: 10 March 2026

Accepted: 20 May 2026

First Online: 12 June 2026

Competing interests

: H.N.T., H.L., K.B.H.F., L.K., and F.F. have no relationships to disclose. E.S. has a consulting/advisory role for D.E. Shaw Research; owns a patent for atezolizumab for treatment of alveolar soft part sarcoma; and participated on a data safety monitoring board or advisory board for FortVita and Mallinckrodt/Therakos. S.C. Speakers’ Bureau – Amgen, Astellas, AstraZeneca, Bristol Myers Squibb, Eisai, Genmab, Janssen, Merck KGaA, Merck, Novartis, Roche, Servier; Research Funding – Abbvie, Amgen, AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bolt Biotherapeutics, Centessa Pharmaceuticals, Cytovation, Eisai, Exelixis, GlaxoSmithKline, Imcheck Therapeutics, Immunocore, Kumquat Biosciences, Marengo, Molecular Partners AG, Merck, OncoC4, Ose Immunotherapeutics, Owkin, Pheast, Pierre Fabre, Replimune, Roche, Sanofi Aventis, Seagen, Sotio A.S, Transgene, Trutino Biosciences, Consulting/Advisory Role – AccessTrial, Alderaan Biotechnology, Amgen; AstraZeneca, Aummune, Avacta, Bayer, Beigene, BioNTech, Celanese, Compugen, Domain Therapeutics, Ellipses Pharma, GE Health, Genmab, Guardant Health, Immunicom, Mariana Oncology, Mima Health, Nanobiotix, Nextcure, NetCancer, Oncovita, Pharma Mar, Pierre Fabre, Replimune, Seagen, Takeda, Tatum Bioscience, Tollys, UltraHuman8; Travel/Accommodations/Expenses – Amgen, AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol Myers Squibb, Merck, Ose Immunotherapeutics, Roche, Sotio; Stocks – Avacta. F.M.-B. Employment – MD Anderson Cancer Center; Honoraria – Dava Oncology; Consulting/Advisory Role – AstraZeneca, Becton Dickinson, Calibr, Cybrexa Therapeutics, Daiichi Sankyo/AstraZeneca, DAVA Pharmaceuticals, Debiopharm Group, EcoR1 Capital, eFFECTOR Therapeutics, Elevation Oncology, Exelixis, GT Aperion, Guardant Health, Harbinger Health, Incyte, Jazz Pharmaceuticals, LegoChem Biosciences, Loxo/Lilly, Menarini Group, Mersana, Molecular Templates, OnCusp Therapeutics, Protai, Ribometrix, Seagen, Tempus, Theratechnologies, Zentalis, Zymeworks; Research Funding – Aileron Therapeutics (Inst), AstraZeneca (Inst), Bayer (Inst), Boehringer Ingelheim (Inst), Calithera Biosciences (Inst), Curis (Inst), CytomX Therapeutics (Inst), Daiichi Sankyo (Inst), Debiopharm Group (Inst), eFFECTOR Therapeutics (Inst), Genentech (Inst), Guardant Health (Inst), Jazz Pharmaceuticals (Inst), Klus Pharma (Inst), Novartis (Inst), Pfizer (Inst), PUMA Biotechnology (Inst), Seagen (Inst), Taiho Pharmaceutical (Inst), Takeda Pharmaceutical (Inst), Zymeworks (Inst); Travel/Accommodations/Expenses – Cholangiocarcinoma Foundation, Dava Oncology, ESMO, EORTC. A.N. Employment – Baylor College of Medicine and Texas Children’s Hospital (I), MD Anderson Cancer Center; Honoraria – AKH Inc., American Society of Clinical Oncology, CME Outfitters, ESMO, Korean Society of Medical Oncology (KSMO), Lynx Group, Scripps Hospital, Society for Immunotherapy of Cancer; Consulting/Advisory Role – Abbvie, CytomX Therapeutics, Deka Biosciences, Genome & Company, Horizon Therapeutics (I), Immune-Onc Therapeutics, Janssen Biotech, Lynx Health, Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp, NGM Biopharmaceuticals, Nouscom, OncoSec, Pharming NV (I), PsiOxus Therapeutics, Servier, STCube Pharmaceuticals Inc., Takeda (I); Speakers’ Bureau – Alfaisal University (I); Research Funding – Amplimmune, Arcus Biosciences, ARMO BioSciences, Atterocor, Baxalta (I), BioNTech SE, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Calithera Biosciences, Chao Physician-Scientist Awards (I), CytomX Therapeutics, EMD Serono, Healios, Immune Deficiency Foundation (I), ImmuneOncia, Incyte, Jeffrey Modell Foundation (I), Karyopharm Therapeutics, Kymab, Lilly, MedImmune, Merck, Monopteros Therapeutics, NCI, NeoImmuneTech, Neon Therapeutics, Novartis, Pfizer, PsiOxus Therapeutics, Regeneron, Seven and Eight Biopharmaceuticals, Sotio, Surface Oncology, Texas Medical Center Digestive Diseases Center (I), TopAlliance BioSciences Inc; Travel/Accommodations/Expenses – ARMO BioSciences, NeoImmuneTech, NGM Biopharmaceuticals. M.A. Research Funding – Genentech (Inst), Nektar Therapeutics (Inst), Merck (Inst), GlaxoSmithKline (Inst), Novartis (Inst), Jounce Therapeutics (Inst), Bristol Myers Squibb (Inst), Eli Lilly (Inst), Adaptimmune (Inst), Shattuck Lab (Inst), Gilead (Inst), BioNTech (Inst), Henlius (Inst), Vivace Therapeutics (Inst), Verismo Therapeutics (Inst), Pfizer (Inst); Consulting/Advisory Role – GlaxoSmithKline, Shattuck Lab, Bristol Myers Squibb, AstraZeneca, Insight; Honoraria – AstraZeneca, Nektar Therapeutics, Society for Immunotherapy of Cancer (SITC); Participation on a Data Safety Monitoring Board or Advisory Board – Nanobiotix–MDA Alliance, Henlius. E.E.D. Consulting/Advisory Role – BOLT Biotherapeutics, Fate Therapeutics, Mersana, PMV Pharma, Summit Therapeutics; Speakers’ Bureau – PMV Pharma; Research Funding – A2A Pharmaceuticals (Inst), Aileron Therapeutics (Inst), Amgen (Inst), Aprea Therapeutics (Inst), Astex Pharmaceuticals (Inst), AstraZeneca (Inst), Bayer (Inst), Bellicum Pharmaceuticals (Inst), Boehringer Ingelheim (Inst), BOLT Biotherapeutics (Inst), Compugen (Inst), Dragonfly Therapeutics (Inst), Fate Therapeutics (Inst), Genentech (Inst), Immunocore (Inst), Immunomedics/Gilead (Inst), Mereo BioPharma 5 (Inst), Mersana (Inst), ModeX Therapeutics (Inst), Pfizer (Inst), PMV Pharma (Inst), Poseida (Inst), Rain Therapeutics (Inst), Sanofi (Inst), Sotio (Inst), Triumvira Immunologics (Inst), Volastra Therapeutics (Inst); Travel/Accommodations/Expenses – Boehringer Ingelheim, Rain Oncology, Triumvira Immunologics.