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Authors
Freyer, Oscar
Ostermann, Max
Minssen, Timo
Gilbert, Stephen
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
HORIZON EUROPE European Research Council (101094218, 101094218, 101094218)
German Federal Ministry of Research, Technology and Space (03ZU1210BA, 03ZU1210BA, 03ZU1210BA)
Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Protein Research, University of Copenhagen (NNF23SA0087056)
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Article History
Received: 30 August 2025
Accepted: 10 October 2025
First Online: 21 October 2025
Competing interests
: O.F. has a leadership role and holds stock in WhalesDontFly GmbH, has had consulting relationships with Prova Health Ltd. MO declares no competing interests. T.M. served as an expert advisor to the European Commission’s Joined Research Centre, the European Open Science Cloud (EOSC), Microsoft, and Corti. T.M. further serves as a senior consultant at X-officio AB, Artigentia, and in the external WHO expert committee on the Ethics and Governance of Artificial Intelligence for Health and serves on the external WHO expert group on Ethical Considerations for the Use of Large Multi-Modal Models for Health Related Applications. S.G. is an advisory group member of the Ernst & Young-coordinated “Study on Regulatory Governance and Innovation in the field of Medical Devices” conducted on behalf of the Directorate-General for Health and Food Safety of the European Commission. S.G. has or has had consulting relationships with Una Health GmbH, Lindus Health Ltd, Flo Ltd, Thymia Ltd, FORUM Institut für Management GmbH, High-Tech Gründerfonds Management GmbH, and Ada Health GmbH, and he holds share options in Ada Health GmbH.
