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Authors
Ostermann, Max
Freyer, Oscar
Verhees, F. Gerrik
Kather, Jakob Nikolas
Gilbert, Stephen
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
Horizon Europe Program (101094218, 101094218)
Federal Ministry of Research, Technology and Space (03ZU1210BA, 03ZU1210BA)
BMFTR (16KISA100k)
Deutsche Krebshilfe (70115166)
German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (01KD2104C)
German Federal Ministry of Education and Research through ERA-NET (01KT2302)
German Federal Ministry of Education and Research ( (01ZU2402A)
German Academic Exchange Service (57616814)
German Federal Joint Committee (01VSF21048)
uropean Union’s Horizon Europe research and innovation programme (ODELIA)
European Union’s Horizon Europe research and innovation programme (101096312)
European Research Council (101114631)
National Institutes of Health (R01 CA263318)
National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR203331)
European Commission under the Horizon Europe Program (101094218)
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Article History
Received: 5 August 2025
Accepted: 12 November 2025
First Online: 5 December 2025
Competing interests
: J.N.K. declares consulting services for Bioptimus; Panakeia; AstraZeneca; and MultiplexDx. Furthermore, he holds shares in StratifAI, Synagen, Tremont AI and Ignition Labs; has received an institutional research grant by GSK; and has received honoraria by AstraZeneca, Bayer, Daiichi Sankyo, Eisai, Janssen, Merck, MSD, BMS, Roche, Pfizer, and Fresenius. O.F. has a leadership role and holds stock in WhalesDontFly GmbH, and has had consulting relationships with Prova Health Ltd. S.G. is an advisory group member of the Ernst & Young-coordinated ‘Study on Regulatory Governance and Innovation in the field of Medical Devices’ conducted on behalf of the Directorate-General for Health and Food Safety of the European Commission. S.G. has or has had consulting relationships with Una Health GmbH, Lindus Health Ltd, Flo Ltd, Thymia Ltd, FORUM Institut für Management GmbH, High-Tech Gründerfonds Management GmbH, and Ada Health GmbH, and he holds share options in Ada Health GmbH. S.G. is a News and Views Editor for npj Digital Medicine but is not part of a peer review process or decision making of this manuscript. S.G. played no role in the internal review or decision to publish this article. F.G.V. declares no competing interests. M.O. declares no competing interests.
