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Article History

Received: 30 July 2025

Accepted: 24 November 2025

First Online: 15 December 2025

Competing interests

: The authors declare the following competing interests: S.W., N.K., D.M., S.S., P.P., J.S., F.N., A.G., C.B., A.M., and S.A are employees of Panakeia Technologies Limited, UK. S.W., N.K., P.P., J.S., F.N., A.G., C.B., and S.A declare stock ownership interests with Panakeia Technologies Limited, UK. P.P. holds a leadership position at Panakeia Technologies Limited, UK. O.M. provides consulting services for Panakeia Technologies Limited, UK. J.B. holds leadership positions at Panakeia Technologies Limited and Bering Limited, UK. J.B. declares travel, accommodations, and expenses for QURE AI, UK, and stock ownership interests with Orli Health, UK. He has received honoraria from Bayer, Germany, and research funding from QURE AI, UK, and IBEX Medical Analytics, Israel. M.S.T. is a scientific advisor to Mindpeak and Sonrai Analytics, and has received honoraria recently from BMS, MSD, Roche, Sanofi and Incyte. He has received grant support from Phillips, Roche, MSD and Akoya. None of these disclosures are related to this work. J.N.K. declares consulting services for Bioptimus, France; Owkin, France; DoMore Diagnostics, Norway; Panakeia Technologies Limited, UK; AstraZeneca, UK; Mindpeak, Germany; and MultiplexDx, Slovakia. Furthermore, he holds shares in StratifAI GmbH, Germany, and Synagen GmbH, Germany, and has received a research grant from GSK. He has also received honoraria by AstraZeneca, Bayer, Daiichi Sankyo, Janssen, Merck, MSD, BMS, Roche, Pfizer, and Fresenius. D.J.H. is an employee of and holds a leadership position at Nucana PLC, UK, and ILC Therapeutics Limited, UK, with which he also declares stock ownership interests. He has received research funding from Nucana PLC, UK. N.M.O. is a stock owner at 4D Path. He also previously received research funding from, and had a consultancy role in, 4D Path. He currently receives research funding from Tristar Technologies, with whom he also has a consultancy role. M.C and C.F. have a consultancy role in TriStar Technologies. E.W. has previously been in receipt of a 4D Path PhD studentship, and is currently in receipt of funding from Panakeia Technologies Limited, UK. J.C.B. is currently employed by Precede Bio. He holds a leadership position on the Board of Directors at Saga Diagnostics. He holds stock or ownership interests in AstraZeneca, Precede Bio, Corista, and Nexosomes. He has provided consulting or advisory services to Akoya, Leica, Agilent, Multiplex, Bain Capital, and ExAI. Other authors declare no other competing interests.