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Article History

Received: 14 August 2025

Accepted: 22 December 2025

First Online: 14 January 2026

Competing interests

: The authors declare the following competing interests: Author AG was supported by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research, the European Union Joint Program – Neurodegenerative Disease Research, the Else Kröner Medical Scientists Kolleg Artifical Intelligence for Clinical Brain Research, and by research grants from Medtronic, Abbott, Boston Scientific, all of which were unrelated to this work. Author SG reports research funding from patients’ groups, BMBF, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG; SPP2177 Radiomics), UM Mainz, Abbott, Boston Scientific, Böhringer Foundation, Magventure, National MS Society, Precisis, Innovationsfond GBA (01NVF22107, INSPIRE – PNRM+). He also received lectures fees from Abbott, Abbvie, Bial, BVDN, IPSEN, Stada, UCB. Author AS has been serving as a consultant for Abbvie, Abbott, and Zambon. He received speaker honoraria from Abbvie, Abbott, Alexion, BSH medical communication, GE Healthcare, Kyowa Kirin, and Novartis. Author RA has received travel expenses and honoraria from Abbott for speaking in a training course. Author MS has received advisory/consulting fees from AbbVie, Abbott, Amneal Pharmaceuticals, Merz therapeutics, Medtronic, Neurocrine, Supernus. He has received research support from AbbVie, Abbott, Cerevel therapeutics, Cerevance, CND Lifesciences, Intra-cellular Therapies, Jazz Pharmaceuticals, Praxis Precision Medicine, Scion, and Teva. He has served on the speaking bureau for AbbVie, Amneal pharmaceuticals, Biogen, Merz, and Supernus. He has also received grant support from the HDSA. Author BW has served as a consultant in the last 12 months for Abbott, Boston Scientific, Medtronic, Supurnus, Mitsubishi Tanabe Pharma, Teva, and the Parkinson’s Foundation. Additionally, he has received grant support from the Parkinson’s Foundation and has received royalties from Springer. Author CW has reported consulting fees from Abbott, Boston Scientific, BrainLab, Medtronic, Nevro, NeuroOne, and Renishaw. He is also a shareholder for ZetaSurgical, and has received research support from the NIH (5U01NS113198) and Dixi Medical. Author CL is a consultant for Medtronic, Boston Scientific, and AbbVie. Author DW has received travel grants, speaker's honoraria, and research funding from Abbott, Boston Scientific, and Medtronic. Authors CAS and DN are Abbott employees. This study was funded by Abbott. Abbott provided technical support and participated in the study design and data analysis and aided in drafting the manuscript in collaboration with the academic authors.