Li, Shuo
Salowe, Rebecca
Lee, Roy
Ying, Gui-shuang
Lee, Insup
O’Brien, Joan
Bastani, Osbert
Funding for this research was provided by:
University of Pennsylvania (Collaborative Research in Trustworthy AI for Medicine grant)
University of Pennsylvania (Collaborative Research in Trustworthy AI for Medicine grant)
University of Pennsylvania (Collaborative Research in Trustworthy AI for Medicine grant)
University of Pennsylvania (Collaborative Research in Trustworthy AI for Medicine grant)
University of Pennsylvania (Collaborative Research in Trustworthy AI for Medicine grant)
National Eye Institute (1R01EY023557)
National Eye Institute (1R01EY023557)
National Eye Institute (P30 EY001583)
National Eye Institute (1R01EY023557)
F. M. Kirby Foundation
Research to Prevent Blindness
UPenn Hospital Board of Women Visitors
Paul and Evanina Bell Mackall Foundation Trust
Article History
Received: 5 September 2024
Accepted: 23 December 2025
First Online: 6 February 2026
Competing interests
: The authors declare no competing interests.