Ji, Jun https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6994-5358
Xi, Zichen
Thomas, Joseph G. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3682-5931
Srijanto, Bernadeta R.
Kravchenko, Ivan I. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4999-5822
Baikadi, Pranay
Sun, Minglei
Vandenberghe, William G. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6717-5046
Jin, Ming
Zhu, Yizheng https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8099-0371
Xiong, Wenjie https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7626-2651
Shao, Linbo https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0615-7848
Funding for this research was provided by:
DOE | LDRD | Oak Ridge National Laboratory (CNMS2022-B-01473, CNMS2024-B-02643)
United States Department of Defense | United States Air Force | AFMC | Air Force Office of Scientific Research (W911NF-23-1-0235)
United States Department of Defense | United States Air Force | AFMC | Air Force Office of Scientific Research (FA9550-22-1-0548)
United States Department of Defense | Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (HR00112320031, HR00112490314)
United States Department of Defense | United States Navy | Office of Naval Research (N00014-23-1-2020)
Commonwealth Cybersecurity Initiative in Virginia
Article History
Received: 16 December 2024
Accepted: 11 July 2025
First Online: 25 August 2025
Competing interests
: The authors declare no competing interests.