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Authors
Lee, Sunwoo https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9750-7224
Ghajari, Shahaboddin https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2155-9535
Sadeghi, Sanaz
Zheng, Yumin https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2341-1967
Zahr, Hind https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3510-5542
Cortese, Alejandro J.
Gu, Wenchao
Choe, Kibaek
Mok, Aaron https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0061-0258
Wallace, Melanie https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4728-4130
Jiao, Rui https://orcid.org/0009-0000-6434-9672
Wu, Chunyan https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6294-4512
Werth, Jesse C. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0124-9273
Fan, Weiru https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0278-8463
Mogalipuvvu, Praneeth
Park, Ju Uhn
Zhao, Shitong https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3522-7216
Smart, Conrad
Cleland, Thomas A. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7506-1201
Warden, Melissa R. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2240-3997
Lammerding, Jan https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4335-8611
Wang, Tianyu
Goldberg, Jesse H.
McEuen, Paul L.
Xu, Chris https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3493-6427
Molnar, Alyosha C.
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
Ministry of Education - Singapore (Academic Research Fund Tier 1 (RG141/23), Academic Research Fund Tier-2 (MOE-T2EP50124-0021), Academic Research Fund Tier 1 (RG141/23), Academic Research Fund Tier-2 (MOE-T2EP50124-0021), Academic Research Fund Tier 1 (RG141/23), Academic Research Fund Tier-2 (MOE-T2EP50124-0021))
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health (R21-EY027581, U01-NS107687, U01-NS107687, U01-NS107687, U01-NS107687, R21-EY027581, U01-NS107687, U01-NS107687, U01-NS107687, R21-EY027581, U01-NS107687, U01-NS107687, U01-NS107687, U01-NS107687, U01-NS107687, U01-NS107687, U01-NS107687, U01-NS107687, U01-NS107687, U01-NS107687, U01-NS107687, R21-EY027581, U01-NS107687, R21-EY027581, U01-NS107687, R21-EY027581, U01-NS107687, R21-EY027581, U01-NS107687, R21-EY027581)
National Research Foundation Singapore (Imperial/NTU CYber Protection for HEalthcaRe (INCYPHER) programme)
Nanyang Technological University (Nanyang Assistant Professorship, ASPIRE League Seed Fund 2024, Nanyang Assistant Professorship, Nanyang Assistant Professorship)
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | NIH | Office of Extramural Research, National Institutes of Health (U01-NS107687)
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Article History
Received: 22 August 2024
Accepted: 23 September 2025
First Online: 3 November 2025
Competing interests
: A.J.C., A.C.M. and P.L.M. are the co-founders of OWIC Technologies Inc., a company developing microscopic optical smart ID tags that use similar CMOS posting processes for etching, shielding and release. A.J.C., A.C.M., P.L.M. and S.L. are inventors of a US patent (number 12/039,389) that covers wireless, optically powered optoelectronic sensors based on the heterogeneously integrated CMOS platform. The other authors declare no competing interests.
