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Authors
Lee, Sunwoo https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9750-7224
Ghajari, Shahaboddin https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2155-9535
Sadeghi, Sanaz
Zheng, Yumin https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2341-1967
Zahr, Hind https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3510-5542
Cortese, Alejandro J.
Gu, Wenchao
Choe, Kibaek
Mok, Aaron https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0061-0258
Wallace, Melanie https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4728-4130
Jiao, Rui https://orcid.org/0009-0000-6434-9672
Wu, Chunyan https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6294-4512
Werth, Jesse C. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0124-9273
Fan, Weiru https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0278-8463
Mogalipuvvu, Praneeth
Park, Ju Uhn
Zhao, Shitong https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3522-7216
Smart, Conrad
Cleland, Thomas A. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7506-1201
Warden, Melissa R. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2240-3997
Lammerding, Jan https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4335-8611
Wang, Tianyu
Goldberg, Jesse H.
McEuen, Paul L.
Xu, Chris https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3493-6427
Molnar, Alyosha C.
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
Ministry of Education - Singapore (Academic Research Fund Tier 1 (RG141/23))
Ministry of Education - Singapore (Academic Research Fund Tier-2 (MOE-T2EP50124-0021))
Ministry of Education - Singapore (Academic Research Fund Tier 1 (RG141/23))
Ministry of Education - Singapore (Academic Research Fund Tier-2 (MOE-T2EP50124-0021))
Ministry of Education - Singapore (Academic Research Fund Tier 1 (RG141/23))
Ministry of Education - Singapore (Academic Research Fund Tier-2 (MOE-T2EP50124-0021))
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health (R21-EY027581)
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health (U01-NS107687)
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health (U01-NS107687)
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health (U01-NS107687)
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health (U01-NS107687)
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health (R21-EY027581)
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health (U01-NS107687)
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health (U01-NS107687)
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health (U01-NS107687)
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health (R21-EY027581)
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health (U01-NS107687)
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health (U01-NS107687)
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health (U01-NS107687)
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health (U01-NS107687)
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health (U01-NS107687)
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health (U01-NS107687)
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health (U01-NS107687)
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health (U01-NS107687)
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health (U01-NS107687)
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health (U01-NS107687)
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health (U01-NS107687)
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health (R21-EY027581)
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health (U01-NS107687)
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health (R21-EY027581)
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health (U01-NS107687)
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health (R21-EY027581)
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health (U01-NS107687)
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health (R21-EY027581)
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health (U01-NS107687)
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health (R21-EY027581)
National Research Foundation Singapore (Imperial/NTU CYber Protection for HEalthcaRe (INCYPHER) programme)
Nanyang Technological University (Nanyang Assistant Professorship)
Nanyang Technological University (ASPIRE League Seed Fund 2024)
Nanyang Technological University (Nanyang Assistant Professorship)
Nanyang Technological University (Nanyang Assistant Professorship)
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | NIH | Office of Extramural Research, National Institutes of Health (U01-NS107687)
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Article History
Received: 22 August 2024
Accepted: 23 September 2025
First Online: 3 November 2025
Competing interests
: A.J.C., A.C.M. and P.L.M. are the co-founders of OWIC Technologies Inc., a company developing microscopic optical smart ID tags that use similar CMOS posting processes for etching, shielding and release. A.J.C., A.C.M., P.L.M. and S.L. are inventors of a US patent (number 12/039,389) that covers wireless, optically powered optoelectronic sensors based on the heterogeneously integrated CMOS platform. The other authors declare no competing interests.
