Zhao, Ruoyu https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5193-8419
Wang, Tong
Moon, Taehwan https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1197-6677
Xu, Yichun
Zhao, Jian https://orcid.org/0009-0009-7684-2320
Sud, Piyush
Kim, Seung Ju https://orcid.org/0009-0000-0405-803X
Liao, Han-Ting
Zhuo, Ye https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1385-9039
Midya, Rivu
Asapu, Shiva
Gao, Dawei https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5525-8717
Rong, Zixuan
Qiu, Qinru
Bowers, Cynthia
Mahalingam, Krishnamurthy
Ganguli, S. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1993-7173
Roy, A. K.
Wu, Qing
Han, Jin-Woo https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5118-1310
Williams, R. Stanley https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0213-4259
Chen, Yong https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4846-7131
Yang, J. Joshua https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8242-7531
Funding for this research was provided by:
United States Department of Defense | United States Army | U.S. Army Research, Development and Engineering Command | Army Research Office (W911NF2120128)
United States Department of Defense | United States Army | U.S. Army Research, Development and Engineering Command | Army Research Office (W911NF1810268)
United States Department of Defense | United States Air Force | AFMC | Air Force Office of Scientific Research (FA9550-24-1-0322)
United States Department of Defense | United States Air Force | AFMC | Air Force Office of Scientific Research (FA9550-19-1-0213)
United States Department of Defense | United States Air Force | AFMC | Air Force Research Laboratory (FA8750-22-1-0501)
National Science Foundation (2036359)
National Science Foundation (2023752)
Article History
Received: 10 May 2024
Accepted: 26 September 2025
First Online: 27 October 2025
Change Date: 10 November 2025
Change Type: Update
Change Details: In the version of the article initially published, the peer review statement was incomplete and has now been amended to “<i>Nature Electronics</i> thanks Eunhye Baek, Carlo Vittorio Cannistraci, Jeehwan Kim and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work” in the HTML and PDF versions of the article.
Competing interests
: The authors declare no competing interests.