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Article History

Received: 28 September 2024

Accepted: 10 June 2025

First Online: 20 July 2025

Competing interests

: The authors declare no competing interests.

: HCC samples used in HBV sequencing were approved by the institutional ethics review committee of the First Affiliated Hospital of USTC and conducted according to the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. The ethics committee waived the need for written informed consent because the study was conducted using residual samples from previous clinical diagnoses, the risks of the study did not exceed minimal risks, and the waiver of informed consent would not adversely affect the subjects. The IHC tissues were collected by Shanghai National Engineering Research Center from Taizhou Hospital (Approved by Research Ethics Committee of Taizhou Hospital). We confirmed that all studies are conducted following relevant guidelines/regulations. All ethical regulations relevant to human research participants were followed. All experiments involving mice were approved by the Animal Care and Use Committees of the First Affiliated Hospital of USTC, and were performed in accordance with the Institutional Animal Welfare Guidelines.