Liu, Xianyuan https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3084-519X
Zhang, Jiayang
Zhou, Shuo https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8069-2814
van der Plas, Thijs L. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5490-1785
Vijayaraghavan, Avish https://orcid.org/0009-0007-2821-1917
Grishina, Anastasiia
Zhuang, Mengdie
Schofield, Daniel
Tomlinson, Christopher https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0903-5395
Wang, Yuhan https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0718-3359
Li, Ruizhe https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2512-845X
van Zeeland, Louisa https://orcid.org/0009-0005-0392-4377
Tabakhi, Sina https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3075-7907
Demeocq, Cyndie https://orcid.org/0009-0000-7713-3707
Li, Xiang
Das, Arunav https://orcid.org/0009-0008-9989-1718
Timmerman, Orlando
Baldwin-McDonald, Thomas https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7301-4399
Wu, Jinge
Bai, Peizhen https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3027-5518
Al Sahili, Zahraa
Alwazzan, Omnia https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7416-1622
Do, Thao N. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0015-892X
Suvon, Mohammod N. I. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9962-315X
Wang, Angeline https://orcid.org/0009-0002-0845-6136
Cipolina-Kun, Lucia
Moretti, Luigi A. https://orcid.org/0009-0002-6180-0565
Farndale, Lucas https://orcid.org/0009-0003-3667-2001
Jain, Nitisha https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7429-7949
Efremova, Natalia https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4853-9550
Ge, Yan
Varela, Marta
Lam, Hak-Keung
Celiktutan, Oya
Evans, Ben R. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0643-526X
Coca-Castro, Alejandro https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9264-1539
Wu, Honghan
Abdallah, Zahraa S.
Chen, Chen
Danchev, Valentin https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7563-0168
Tkachenko, Nataliya
Lu, Lei
Zhu, Tingting https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1552-5630
Slabaugh, Gregory G.
Moore, Roger K.
Cheung, William K. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7428-2050
Charlton, Peter H.
Lu, Haiping https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0349-2181
Funding for this research was provided by:
RCUK | Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (UKRI396, EP/Y017544/1, EP/Y028880/1, EP/S023283/1, EP/X031276/1, EP/S021612/1, EP/S022961/1, EP/S023437/1, EP/Y028880/1, EP/Y009800/1)
Donations from D. Naik and S. Naik.
Norges Forskningsråd (288787)
Royal Society (IEC\NSFC\233558, GS\R2\242355)
RCUK | Natural Environment Research Council (NE/W004747/1)
Google DeepMind
DH | National Institute for Health Research (NIHR203330)
RCUK | Medical Research Council (MR/W006804/1, MR/X030075/1)
EC | Horizon 2020 Framework Programme (101061441)
St George and Sutherland Medical Research Foundation
St George's Hospital Charity
Royal Academy of Engineering (RF\201819\18\109)
Google DeepMind
British Heart Foundation (FS/20/20/34626)
Article History
Received: 28 March 2025
Accepted: 15 August 2025
First Online: 21 October 2025
Competing interests
: G.G.S. is a scientific advisory board member at BioAI Health. P.H.C. provides consulting services to Cambridge University Technical Services for wearable manufacturers. The remaining authors declare no competing interests.