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Article History

Received: 20 December 2024

Accepted: 6 March 2026

First Online: 1 May 2026

Competing interests

: N. Steeghs provided consultation or attended advisory boards for Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol Myers Squibb, Ellipses Pharma, GlaxoSmithKline and Incyte. She received research grants from Abbvie, Actuate Therapeutics, Amgen, Anaveon, AstraZeneca, Bayer, Blueprint Medicines, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol Myers Squibb, CellCentric, Cogent Biosciences, Crescendo Biologics, Deciphera, Exelixis, Genentech, GlaxoSmithKline, IDRx, Immunocore, Incyte, Janssen, Kling Biotherapeutics, Lixte, Merck, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Merus, Molecular Partners, Novartis, Pfizer, Revolution Medicines, Roche, Sanofi, Seattle Genetics and Zentalis. All were outside the submitted work; all payment was made to the Netherlands Cancer Institute. C.G.-R. has received honoraria and consulting fees from Regeneron Therapeutics, Pierre Fabre, Bristol Myers Squibb, Roche-Genentech; travel support from Merck Sharp & Dohme, Roche-Genentech and Pierre Fabre; participation on data safety monitoring or advisory board for Pharmamar and Macomics; and funding to institution for the conduct of clinical research from Abbvie, Amunix, AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Daiichi Sankyo, Dragonfly, Ideaya, Incyte, Kazia, Eli Lilly/Loxo, Molecular Partners, Ose Immunotherapeutics, Roche-Genentech, Sotio and Tango, and had leadership roles at the European Society For Medical Oncology and FITC. I.K. has received travel support from Roche; honoraria from Merck Sharp & Dohme for oral presentations; and funding to institution for the conduct of clinical research from Abbvie, Amgen, ANAVEON, C4 Therapeutics, Daiichi Sankyo, Dragonfly, Molecular Partners, Imcheck Therapeutics and Sotio. H.D.W., N. Stojcheva, V.S., J.K., P.B., E.F., A.M.F., L.H., M.P.S., V.K. and P.L. are or were employees of Molecular Partners when the study was conducted and the manuscript prepared; they also have stock ownership. P.A.C. has received honoraria from Boehringer Ingelheim, Brenus, Bristol Myers Squibb, Ose Immunotherapeutics and Scenic; travel support from Novartis and Pierre Fabre; nonfinancial support from Debiopharm, GlaxoSmithKline and Novartis; and funding to institution for the conduct of clinical research from Abbvie, ADCT, Adlai Nortye, Amgen, Boehringer Ingelheim, Blueprint, C4 Therapeutics, Debio Pharm, Daiichi Sankyo, Dragonfly, Exelixis, Incyte, Iteos, Janssen, Eli Lilly/Loxo, Molecular Partners, Novartis, Ose Immunotherapeutics, Relay, Roche/Genentech, Sotio, Taiho, Tango, Toray and Transgene. E.G. declares no competing interests.