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Article History

Received: 13 August 2025

Accepted: 7 April 2026

First Online: 13 May 2026

Competing interests

: S.P. has received research funding to their institution from Amgen, Arcus, AstraZeneca, BeiGene, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol Myers Squibb, Eli Lilly, GSK, iTeos, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Mirati, Pfizer, PharmaMar, Promontory Therapeutics, Roche/Genentech and Seattle Genetics, consulting fees to their institution from AbbVie, Amgen, Arcus, AstraZeneca, Bayer, BeiGene, BioNTech, BerGenBio, Bicycle Therapeutics, Biocartis, BioInvent, Blueprint Medicines, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol Myers Squibb, Clovis, Daiichi Sankyo, Debiopharm, Eli Lilly, F-star, Foundation Medicine, Genmab, Genzyme, Gilead, GSK, Hutchmed, Illumina, Incyte, Ipsen, iTeos, Janssen, Qlucore, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Merck Serono, Merrimack, Mirati, Nuvation Bio, Nykode Therapeutics, Novartis, Novocure, PharmaMar, Promontory Therapeutics, Pfizer, Regeneron, Roche/Genentech, Sanofi, Seattle Genetics, Takeda and Zymeworks, honoraria to their institution from AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol Myers Squibb, Eli Lilly, Foundation Medicine, GSK, Illumina, Ipsen, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Mirati, Novartis, Pfizer, Roche/Genentech, Sanofi, Seattle Genetics and Takeda and support for meetings or travel to their institution from AstraZeneca, Bristol Myers Squibb, Daiichi Sankyo, Eli Lilly, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Novartis, Pfizer, Roche/Genentech and Takeda and has participated in the data safety and monitoring boards for AbbVie, Amgen, Arcus, AstraZeneca, Bayer, BeiGene, BioNTech, BerGenBio, Bicycle Therapeutics, Biocartis, BioInvent, Blueprint Medicines, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol Myers Squibb, Clovis, Daiichi Sankyo, Debiopharm, Eli Lilly, F-star, Foundation Medicine, Genmab, Genzyme, Gilead, GSK, Hutchmed, Illumina, Incyte, Ipsen, iTeos, Janssen, Qlucore, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Merck Serono, Merrimack, Mirati, Nuvation Bio, Nykode Therapeutics, Novartis, Novocure, PharmaMar, Promontory Therapeutics, Pfizer, Regeneron, Roche/Genentech, Sanofi, Seattle Genetics, Takeda and Zymeworks. D.S.W.T. has served a consulting or advisory role with Amgen, AstraZeneca, Bayer, Boehringer Ingelheim, DKSH, GSK, Merck, Novartis, Pfizer, Roche and Takeda, has received research funding to their institution from ACM Biolabs, Amgen, AstraZeneca, and Pfizer and holds stock options with Oncoshot and C2i Genomics. D.E.G. has received grants or contracts to their institution from AstraZeneca, BerGenBio, Karyopharm, and Novocure, royalites from Oxford University Press and consulting fees from Catalyst Pharmaceuticals, has served on advisory boards for AbbVie, AstraZeneca, Daiichi Sankyo, Elevation Oncology, Janssen Scientific Affairs, Jazz, Regeneron and Sanofi, secured patent 11,747,345 for the ‘prediction and treatment of immunotherapeutic toxicity’ and has four additional patents pending, has served as the chief medical officer for OncoSeer Diagnostics, has participated in the data safety monitoring board for Daiichi Sankyo and Summit Therapeutics and has stock options with Gilead. J.U. serves as the Vice Chair on the Respiratory Committee for the Alliance for Clinical Trials in Oncology (National Cancer Institute-Sponsored Cooperative Group). S.R. has received grants to their institution from Amgen, AstraZeneca, Bristol Myers Squibb, Merck and Pfizer and meeting or travel support from AstraZeneca and AbbVie and has participated in the data safety monitoring board for Johnson & Johnson and Gilead. A.R. has participated in the data safety and monitoring boards for AbbVie, AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol Myers Squibb, Daiichi Sankyo, Eli Lilly, GSK, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Novartis, Pfizer and Roche. T.-E.C. has received honoraria from Amgen, Astellas, AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol Myers Squibb, EMD Serono, Ipsen, Janssen/Johnson & Johnson Innovative Medicine, Lilly, Medison, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Novartis, Pfizer, Roche, Sevier and Takeda and travel support from Amgen, Astellas, AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol Myers Squibb, EMD Serono, Janssen/Johnson & Johnson Innovative Medicine, Ipsen, Lilly, Medison, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Novartis, Pfizer, Roche, Sevier and Takeda and has participated in the data safety and monitoring boards or advisory boards for Amgen, Astellas, AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol Myers Squibb, EMD Serono, Ipsen, Janssen/Johnson & Johnson Innovative Medicine, Lilly, Medison, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Novartis, Pfizer, Roche, Sevier and Takeda. H.R.K. has received research funding to their institution from ABL Bio, AstraZeneca, Bristol Myers Squibb, Genentech/Roche, Merck & Co. and Merck Sharp & Dohme and honoraria from AstraZeneca and Takeda. C.R. has received honoraria from AstraZeneca, Bristol Myers Squibb, Pfizer, Merck Sharp & Dohme and Roche and has participated in the data safety and monitoring boards for Bristol Myers Squibb, Pfizer, Merck Sharp & Dohme, and Sanofi. K.S. has received consulting fees from Amgen, AstraZeneca, Bristol Myers Squibb and Merck Sharp & Dohme. H.H. has received grants from A2 Healthcare Corp, AbbVie, Amgen, Ascent Development Services, Astellas Pharma, AstraZeneca, Bayer Yakuhin, Bristol Myers Squibb, Chugai Pharmaceutical, CMIC, Clinical Research Support Center Kyushu, Comprehensive Support Project for Oncological Research of Breast Cancer, Daiichi Sankyo, Eisai Ltd., Eisai Inc, Eli Lilly Japan, EP-CRSU CO, EPS Corporation, GSK, ICON Japan, IQVIA Services JAPAN, Kobayashi Pharmaceutical, Kyowa Kirin, Janssen Pharmaceutical, Japan Clinical Cancer Research Organization, Japanese Gastric Cancer Association, Labcorp Development Japan, Medpace Japan, Merck Biopharma, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Mochida Pharmaceutical, Nippon Boehringer Ingelheim, Nippon Kayaku, Novartis Pharma, Otsuka Pharmaceutical, PPD-SNBL, Pfizer Japan, Pfizer R&D Japan, PRA Health Sciences, Public Health Research Foundation, Sanofi, Shionogi & Co., SRL Medisearch, Sysemex, Syneos Health Clinical, Taiho Pharmaceutical, Takeda Pharmaceutical, Thoracic Oncology Research Group and West Japan Oncology Group and honoraria from 3H Clinical Trial, AbbVie, Amgen, AstraZeneca, Bristol Myers Squibb, Care Net, Chugai Pharmaceutical, Daiichi Sankyo, Eisai Ltd., Eli Lilly Japan, Guardant Health Japan, Hisamitsu Pharmaceutical, Ishiyaku Publishers, Janssen Pharmaceutical, Kyowa Kirin, Medical Review, Merck Biopharma, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Nippon Boehringer Ingelheim, Nippon Kayaku, Novartis Pharma, Novocure, Ono Pharmaceutical, Pfizer Japan, Reno, Medical, Sysmex Corporation, Taiho Pharmaceutical and Takeda Pharmaceutical and has participated in the data safety and monitoring boards for AbbVie, AstraZeneca, Bristol Myers Squibb, Chugai Pharmaceutical, Daiichi Sankyo, Janssen Pharmaceutical and Novocure. A.H. has received honoraria from AstraZeneca and Bristol Myers Squibb. D.C. has received consulting fees from AstraZeneca, Amgen, BeOne, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol Myers Squibb, Daiichi Sankyo, Johnson & Johnson, Lilly, Merck Sharp & Dohme and Roche and honoraria from Pfizer and has participated in the data safety and monitoring boards for Catalym. D.B. has received grants or contracts from AstraZeneca, Bristol Myers Squibb, Daiichi Sankyo, Dragonfly Therapeutics, F. Hoffmann-La Roche, Gilead, Merck, Seagen, honoraria from AstraZeneca and meeting or travel support from AstraZeneca, Bristol Myers Squibb, Novocure and Regeneron and has participated in data safety and monitoring boards for AstraZeneca, Bristol Myers Squibb, Merck, Novocure and Regeneron. M.K. has received research funding from Bristol Myers Squibb, consulting fees from Bristol Myers Squibb and Johnson & Johnson, honoraria from AstraZeneca, Bristol Myers Squibb and Takeda and meeting or travel support from BeiGene, Johnson & Johnson and Pierre Fabre, has participated in the data safety and monitoring boards for Amgen, Bristol Myers Squibb and Johnson & Johnson and received the study drug from Bristol Myers Squibb. A.C. has received consulting fees from AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Pfizer, Roche/Genentech, Eli Lilly and Company, Novartis, Takeda, Merck Sharp & Dohme, and Bristol Myers Squibb, research funding from Merck Sharp & Dome; received honoraria from AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bayer, Pfizer, Roche, Novartis, Merck Sharp & Dohme and Bristol Myers Squibb and meeting or travel support from Roche, Boehringer Ingelheim, Pfizer, Merck Sharp & Dohme and Bristol Myers Squibb. R.N. and G.P. are employees of Bristol Myers Squibb and own stock options. L.Y. is an employee of Bristol Myers Squibb. D.D.R. has received research grants, support or advisory board funding to their institution from AstraZeneca, Bristol Myers Squibb, BeiGene, Phillips and Olink and has served on an advisory board for Eli Lilly. The other authors declare no competing interests.