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Article History

Received: 14 December 2024

Accepted: 27 April 2026

First Online: 3 June 2026

Competing interests

: C.J.W. holds equity from BioNTech and receives research funding from Pharmacyclics; she is also on the scientific advisory boards of Adventris, Nature’s Toolbox, Repertoire and Aethon Therapeutics. G.G. receives research funds from IBM, Pharmacyclics/AbbVie, Bayer, Genentech, Calico, Ultima Genomics and Inocras and is also an inventor on patent applications filed by the Broad Institute related to MSMuTect, MSMutSig, POLYSOLVER, SignatureAnalyzer-GPU, MSEye and MinimuMM-seq. G.G. is a founder and consultant and holds privately held equity in Scorpion Therapeutics; he is also a founder of and holds privately held equity in PreDICTA Biosciences. G.G. has also consulted for Merck. R.Y.H. consults for Nuvation Bio, Servier and Telix and is on the scientific advisory board of Vysioneer. D.A.R. has received financial compensation for consultancy or advisory board participation from AnHeart Pharmaceuticals, Aptitude Health, BlueRock Therapeutics, CeCaVa & Co., Chimeric Therapeutics, Elsevier, F. Hoffmann La-Roche, Genenta Science, Inovio, Insightec, Janssen, Jupiter Life Sciences Consulting, Kintara, Kiyatec, Johnson & Johnson Pharma, Lumanity, Menari Stemline, Miltenyi Biomedicine, Neuvogen, Novocure, Paradigm Medical Communications, Putnam Inizii Associates, Sumitomo Dainippon Pharma Oncology, Servier, Triangle Insights Group, Vivacitas Oncology and WebMD. D.A.R. serves as a member of a data safety monitoring board for ImVax and CeCaVa and owns stock in AnHeart Therapeutics and Bionaut Labs. E.A.C. is cofounder and holds equity in Ternalys Therapeutics, holds equity in Bionaut Technologies and Seneca Therapeutics and consults for Theriva, Genenta. P.Y.W. has received research funding from AstraZeneca, Black Diamond, Bristol Myers Squibb, Chimerix, Eli Lilly, Erasca, Global Coalition for Adaptive Research, Kazia, MediciNova, Merck, Novartis, Quadriga, Servier and VBI Vaccines and honoraria for consulting from AstraZeneca, Black Diamond, Bristol Myers Squibb, Chimerix, Eli Lilly, Erasca, Global Coalition for Adaptive Research, Kazia, MediciNova, Merck, Novartis, Quadriga, Servier and VBI Vaccines. D.N. has stock in Madrigal Pharmaceuticals. I.T. is an advisory board member of Immunitas Therapeutics and scientific cofounder of Cellyrix Therapeutics. K.L.L. holds equity in Travera and has received consulting fees from Travera, Servier, BMS, LEK and Blaze Biosciences and research funds from BMS and Lilly. R.R. consults (advisory board participation) for Servier Pharmaceuticals and Telix Pharmaceuticals and serves as a consultant (unpaid) for NH TherAguix. The other authors declare no competing interests related to this study.