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Article History

Received: 25 March 2025

Accepted: 31 October 2025

First Online: 19 December 2025

Competing interests

: M.N.S. discloses ownership interest (stock or stock options) in Lighthouse Pharmaceuticals; he consults for Eisai, Lilly, NeuroTherapia, Signant Health, Novo Nordisk, Anavex Life Sciences, Alzheon, Cognito Therapeutics, GSK and AbbVie. M.N.S. is supported by the National Institutes of Health grants R01AG059008, R01AG073212 and P30AG072980, as well as by the Barrow Neurological Foundation. J.L.C. has provided consultation to Acadia Pharmaceuticals, Acumen Pharmaceuticals, ALZpath, Annovis, Aprinoia Therapeutics, Artery Therapeutics, Biogen, Biohaven, BioXcel, Bristol Myers Squibb, Eisai, Fosun, GAP Foundation, Green Valley, Janssen, Karuna, Kinoxis Therapeutics, Lighthouse Pharmaceuticals, Lilly, Lundbeck, LSP/EQT Life Sciences, Mangrove Therapeutics, Merck, MoCA Cognition, New Amsterdam, Novo Nordisk, OptoCeutics, Otsuka, Oxford Brain Diagnostics, Praxis, Prothena, reMYND, Roche, Scottish Brain Sciences, Signant Health, Simcere, Sinaptica, T-Neuro, TrueBinding and Vaxxinity pharmaceutical, assessment and investment companies. J.L.C. is supported by the National Institute of General Medical Sciences (NIGMS) grant P20GM109025, National Institute on Aging (NIA) grants R35AG71476 and R25AG083721-01, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) grant RO1NS139383, the Alzheimer’s Drug Discovery Foundation (ADDF), Ted and Maria Quirk Endowment, and Joy Chambers-Grundy Endowment. C.B. has received contract grant funding from Acadia Pharmaceuticals, Lundbeck, Takeda and Axovant pharmaceutical companies, as well as honoraria from Lundbeck, Lilly, Otsuka and Orion pharmaceutical companies. W.M.v.d.F. declares having research programs that have been funded by ZonMw, NWO, EU-JPND, EU-IHI, Alzheimer Nederland, Hersenstichting CardioVascular Onderzoek Nederland, Health~Holland (Topsector Life Sciences & Health), Stichting Dioraphte, Gieskes-Strijbis Fonds, Stichting Equilibrio, Edwin Bouw Fonds, Pasman Stichting, Stichting Alzheimer & Neuropsychiatrie Foundation, Philips, Biogen MA Inc., Novartis-NL, Life-MI, AVID, Roche BV, Eli Lilly-NL, Fujifilm, Eisai and Combinostics. W.M.v.d.F. holds the Pasman chair. W.M.v.d.F. is a recipient of ABOARD, which is a public–private partnership receiving funding from ZonMw (#73305095007) and Health~Holland (Topsector Life Sciences & Health) (public–private partnership allowance; #LSHM20106). W.M.v.d.F. is a recipient of TAP-dementia ( ), which receives funding from ZonMw (#10510032120003). TAP-dementia receives cofinancing from Avid Radiopharmaceuticals and Amprion. All funding is paid to her institution. W.M.v.d.F. has been an invited speaker at Biogen MA Inc., Danone, Eisai, WebMD Neurology (Medscape), Novo Nordisk, Springer Healthcare and European Brain Council. All funding is paid to her institution. W.M.v.d.F. is a consultant to Oxford Health Policy Forum CIC, Roche, Biogen MA Inc. and Eisai. All funding is paid to her institution. W.M.v.d.F. participated in the advisory boards of Biogen MA Inc., Roche and Eli Lilly. W.M.v.d.F. is a member of the steering committee of evoke/evoke+ (Novo Nordisk). All funding is paid to her institution. W.M.v.d.F. is a member of the steering committee of PAVE and Think Brain Health. W.M.v.d.F. was an associate editor of Alzheimer’s Research & Therapy in 2020/2021 and is an associate editor at Brain . M.T.H. serves on the science advisory board of the UK Dementia Research Institute at Imperial College London, Life and Health Sciences Research Institute of the University of Minho School of Medicine, the Lyon Neuroscience Research Center, Alector, Muna Therapeutics and T3D Therapeutics. He has received speaking honoraria from Novo Nordisk, Novartis, Biogen and Eli Lilly. J.J.H. consults for Novo Nordisk and is the founder of Antag Pharmaceuticals. L.B.K. is an employee and a minor employee related shareholder of Novo Nordisk A/S. L.B.K. is an inventor on several patents related to GLP-1-based medicines and various uses of them. S.S. has provided consultation to Eisai, Biogen, Lilly, Roche, Genentech, Bolden, Novo Nordisk, Prothena, Acumen Pharmaceuticals, Labcorp, Alector, Corium, Kisbee, Neurophet, Icometrix and AbbVie. S.S. receives research support for clinical trials from Janssen, Lilly, Eisai, Genentech, Roche and Biogen. S.S. is an associate editor of the Journal of Prevention of Alzheimer’s Disease and Alzheimer’s and Dementia: Diagnosis, Assessment and Disease Monitoring . M.G.T. is supported by NINDS grant RF1NS128800, the Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson’s Research and the Parkinson’s Foundation. She has provided consultation to INmune Bio, Merck, Calico, Forward Therapeutics, Jaya, SciNeuro, NysnoBio, Longevity Biotech, Sanofi, iMetabolic Pharma, Novo Nordisk and iMMvention. She serves on advisory boards for the Weston Family Foundation, the Medical and Scientific Advisory Group of the Alzheimer’s Association, Longeveron and the Parkinson’s Foundation. D.J.D. has been a supported speaker or consultant for AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Kallyope, Merck, Novo Nordisk and Pfizer, as well as receives grant support for preclinical studies from Amgen, Zealand Pharma and Eli Lilly.