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Article History

Received: 20 April 2024

Accepted: 21 February 2025

First Online: 4 March 2025

Competing interests

: B.B. discloses funding from the National Library of Medicine (grant No. 2T15LM007033). E.K. discloses funding from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (grant No. K23HL157750). R.J.G. is supported by a VA Advanced Fellowship in Medical Informatics. A.M. reports uncompensated and compensated relationships with care.coach, Emsana Health, Embold Health, ezPT, FN Advisors, Intermountain Healthcare, JRSL, The Leapfrog Group, the Peterson Center on Healthcare, Prealize Health, and PBGH. D.C. reports support from a Robert Wood Johnson Pioneer Grant. J.H.C. reports cofounding Reaction Explorer, which develops and licenses organic chemistry education software, as well as paid consulting fees from Sutton Pierce, Younker Hyde Macfarlane and Sykes McAllister as a medical expert witness. He receives funding from the National Institutes of Health (NIH)/National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (1R01AI17812101), NIH/National Institute on Drug Abuse Clinical Trials Network (UG1DA015815—CTN-0136), Stanford Artificial Intelligence in Medicine and Imaging—Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence Partnership Grant, the NIH-NCATS-Clinical & Translational Science Award (UM1TR004921), Stanford Bio-X Interdisciplinary Initiatives Seed Grants Program (IIP) [R12], NIH/Center for Undiagnosed Diseases at Stanford (U01 NS134358) and the American Heart Association—Strategically Focused Research Network—Diversity in Clinical Trials. The other authors declare no competing interests. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish or preparation of the paper.