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Article History

Received: 31 January 2025

Accepted: 27 August 2025

First Online: 30 September 2025

Competing interests

: The authors declare no direct conflicts with this work. For unrelated conflicts, AMM reported advisory board honoraria from Bristol-Myers Squibb, MSD, Novartis, Roche, Pierre-Fabre, and QBiotics. I.L.M.R. and P.D. reported financial interest in Signature Oncology, and will receive some possible revenues if the IFNγ signature is being developed as a clinical companion diagnostic. A.M.M.v.d.V. reported consultancy honoraria (all paid to the institute) from Bristol-Myers Squibb, MSD, Eisai, Ipsen, Sanofi, Pierre Fabre, Pfizer, Novartis, and Roche. E.K. has consultancy/advisory relationships with Bristol Myers Squibb, Pierre Fabre, Immunocore and Lilly, and received research grants not related to this paper from Bristol Myers Squibb, Delcath, Novartis, and Pierre-Fabre. Not related to current work and paid to institute. RAS has received fees for professional services from IO Biotech ApS, MetaOptima Technology Inc., F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Evaxion, Provectus Biopharmaceuticals Australia, Qbiotics, Novartis, Merck Sharp & Dohme, NeraCare, AMGEN Inc., Bristol-Myers Squibb, Myriad Genetics, GlaxoSmithKline. BAvdW reported an advisory role for Bristol-Myers Squibb. A.C.J.v.A. has received advisory board and consultancy honoraria from Amgen, Bristol-Myers Squibb, MSD-Merck, Merck-Pfizer, Neracare, Novartis, Pierre Fabre, Provectus, Sanofi, Sirius Medical, and 4SC, all paid to the institute; and research grants received from Amgen, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Merck-Pfizer, and Novartis, all paid to the institute. TNS reported advisory roles for Allogene Therapeutics, Asher Bio, Merus, Neogene Therapeutics, Scenic Biotech, and Third Rock Ventures; and is a stockowner of Allogene Therapeutics, Asher Bio, Celsius, Merus, Neogene Therapeutics, Scenic Biotech, and Third Rock Ventures. G.V.L. reported consultant advisor roles for Agenus, Amgen, Array Biopharma, AstraZeneca, Bayer, BioNTech, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Evaxion, Hexal AG (Sandoz Company), Highlight Therapeutics, IOBiotech, Immunocore, Innovent Biologics USA, Merck Sharpe & Dohme, Novartis, PHMR Ltd, Pierre Fabre, Regeneron, Scancell, and SkylineDX. C.U.B. received compensation (all paid to the institute except TRV) for advisory roles for Bristol-Myers Squibb, MSD, Roche, Novartis, GSK, AZ, Pfizer, Lilly, GenMab, Pierre Fabre, Third Rock Ventures; received research funding (all paid to the institute) from Bristol-Myers Squibb, Novartis, NanoString, and declares stock ownership in Flindr Therapeutics (formerly Immagene BV), where he is co-founder. Financial support for the trials was provided by Bristol-Myers Squibb, with the Netherlands Cancer Institute as sponsor of the OpACIN, OpACIN-neo, and PRADO trials.