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Authors
Snelling, Andrew JHL https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2882-2079
Copland, Emma https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9280-5241
Mei, Winnie X.
Mtika, Wema M. https://orcid.org/0009-0007-1242-4889
Ranger, Tom
Coupland, Carol
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Knight, Marian
Hodson, Kenneth
Harnden, Anthony
Van-Tam, Jonathan
Dezateux, Carol
Kelly, Brenda
Morelli, Alessandra
Enstone, Joanne
Dixon, Sharon
Sheikh, Aziz
Hippisley-Cox, Julia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2479-7283
Hirst, Jennifer A. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8416-2159
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
DH | National Institute for Health Research (591)
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Article History
Received: 18 April 2025
Accepted: 20 October 2025
First Online: 23 December 2025
Competing interests
: The authors declare the following competing interests: A.S. is a member of the Scottish Government Chief Medical Officer’s COVID-19 Advisory Group, the Scottish Government’s Standing Committee on Pandemics and AstraZeneca’s Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic Advisory Group. All roles are unremunerated. J.H.C. reports grants from National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Biomedical Research Centre, Oxford, grants from John Fell Oxford University Press Research Fund, grants from Cancer Research UK (CR-UK) grant number C5255/A18085, through the Cancer Research UK Oxford Centre, grants from the Oxford Wellcome Institutional Strategic Support Fund (204826/Z/16/Z) and other research councils, during the conduct of the study. J.H.C. is an unpaid director of QResearch, a not-for-profit organisation which is hosted by Queen Mary University of London. J.H.C. is a founder and shareholder of ClinRisk Ltd and was its medical director until 31 st May 2019 and shareholder until Aug 2023 when 100% of the company was donated to Endeavour Health Care Charitable Trust. ClinRisk Ltd produces open and closed source software to implement clinical risk algorithms (outside this work) into clinical computer systems. J.H.C. is chair of the NERVTAG risk stratification subgroup and a member of SAGE COVID-19 groups. All remaining authors declare no competing interests related to this paper.
