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Article History

Received: 6 July 2025

Accepted: 22 January 2026

First Online: 5 March 2026

Competing interests

: G.B. has received personal fees from Abbott, AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Novartis and Novo Nordisk outside the submitted work. L. Monzo has received personal fees from AstraZeneca and Vifor outside the submitted work. N.G. has received personal fees from AstraZeneca, Bayer, Boehringer, Novartis and Vifor outside the submitted work. A. Mebazaa has received grants from Roche Diagnostics, Abbott Laboratories, 4TEEN4 and Windtree Therapeutics; has received honoraria for lectures from Roche Diagnostics, Bayer and MSD; is a consultant for Corteria Pharmaceuticals, S-Form Pharma, FIRE1, Implicity, 4TEEN4 and Adrenomed; and is a coinventor of a patent on combination therapy for patients with acute or persistent dyspnea, all outside the submitted work. J.B. has received personal fees from Abbott, American Regent, Amgen, Applied Therapeutics, AskBio, Astellas, AstraZeneca, Bayer, Boehringer Ingelheim, Boston Scientific, Bristol Myers Squibb, Cardiac Dimension, Cardiocell, Cardior, CSL Behring, CVRx, Cytokinetics, Daxor, Edwards, Element Science, Faraday, Foundry, G3P, Innolife, Impulse Dynamics, Imbria, Inventiva, Ionis, Lexicon, Lilly, LivaNova, Janssen, Medtronic, Merck, Occlutech, Owkin, Novartis, Novo Nordisk, Pfizer, Pharmacosmos, PharmaIN, Prolaio, Regeneron, Renibus, Roche, Salamandra, Sanofi, SC Pharma, Secretome, Sequana, SQ Innovation, Tenex, Tricog, Ultromics, Vifor and Zoll outside the submitted work. K.R. is an employee of Bayer, Germany. F.Z. has received personal fees from 89Bio, Abbott, Acceleron, Applied Therapeutics, Bayer, Betagenon, Boehringer, BMS, CVRx, Cambrian, Cardior, Cereno Pharmaceutical, CellProthera, CEVA, Inventiva, KBP, Merck, Novo Nordisk, Owkin, Otsuka, Roche Diagnostics, Northsea, USa2; has stock options in G3 Pharmaceuticals; has equities in Cereno, Cardiorenal and Eshmoun Clinical Research; and is the founder of Cardiovascular Clinical Trialists, all outside the submitted work. M.C.P. has received research funding from Boehringer Ingelheim, Roche, SQ Innovations, AstraZeneca, Novartis, Novo Nordisk, Medtronic, Boston Scientific and Pharmacosmos, and serves on consultancy and trial committees for Abbott, Akero, Applied Therapeutics, Amgen, AnaCardio, Biosensors, Boehringer Ingelheim, Corteria, Novartis, AstraZeneca, Novo Nordisk, AbbVie, Bayer, Horizon Therapeutics, Foundry, Takeda, Cardiorentis, Pharmacosmos, Siemens, Eli Lilly, Vifor, New Amsterdam, Moderna, Teikoku, LIB Therapeutics, 3R Lifesciences, Reprieve, FIRE1, Corvia and Regeneron. H.G.C.V. has received research funding from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research and Heart and Stroke Foundation, and a mid-career research award from Population Health Research Institute. She receives speaker fees or serves on trial committees sponsored by Bayer, Novo Nordisk and Medtronic. She has received educational program funding from Boehringer Ingelheim and Novartis. The other authors declare no competing interests.