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Article History

Received: 21 July 2025

Accepted: 3 February 2026

First Online: 17 March 2026

Competing interests

: G.B. reports personal fees from Abbott, AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Novartis and Novo Nordisk outside the submitted work. A.D.D. reports research funding through his institution from Biofourmis, Bodyport, Cytokinetics, American Regent, Inc., the National Institutes of Health/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI), Natera, Novartis, Story Health and Ventricle Health. He also provides consulting services for and/or receives honoraria from Abiomed, Bodyport, Cardionomic, LivaNova, Myovant, Natera, Novo Nordisk and Zoll. C.M.G. receives research funding from CSL Behring, Janssen Pharmaceuticals, Johnson & Johnson Corporation and SCAD Alliance. He receives consulting fees from Angel/Avertix Medical Corporation, AstraZeneca, Bayer Corporation, Beren Therapeutics, Boehringer Ingelheim, Boston Clinical Research Institute, Boston Scientific, Bristol Myers Squibb, Cardiovascular Research Foundation, CeleCor Therapeutics, CSL Behring, DCRI, Esperion, EXCITE International (no fees received), Fortress Biotech, Gilead Sciences, Inc., Janssen Pharmaceuticals, Johnson & Johnson Corporation, MashUp MD, MD Magazine, Microport, MJHealth, Novartis, Novo Nordisk, Pfizer, PHRI, PLxPharma, SCAI, Solstic Health/New Amsterdam Pharma, Somahlution/Marizyme, Vectura, WebMD and Women As One. He has equity in nference, Dyad Medical, Absolutys and Fortress Biotech and also receives royalties as a contributor for UpToDate. C.B.G. reports receiving consulting fees from AbbVie, Abiomed, Alnylam Pharmaceuticals, Amgen, Anthos, AstraZeneca, Bayer Corporation, Boehringer Ingelheim, Boston Scientific Corporation, Bristol Myers Squibb, Cardionomics, CeleCor Therapeutics, Janssen Pharmaceuticals, Merck, Novo Nordisk, Novartis, Pfizer, Philips and Roche. He also receives a salary funded by Duke research grants sponsored by Alnylam Pharmaceuticals, Amgen, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol Myers Squibb, Janssen Pharmaceuticals, NHLBI, Novartis, Pfizer and Philips. He has equity in Tenac.io. P.K. provides advisory services for and has received honoraria from GLG, Guidepoint and Atheneum. T.B.-S. has received research grants from Bayer, Novartis, Pfizer, Sanofi Pasteur, GSK, Novo Nordisk, AstraZeneca, Boston Scientific and GE Healthcare; consulting fees from Novo Nordisk, IQVIA, Parexel, Amgen, CSL Seqirus, GSK and Sanofi Pasteur; and lecture fees from AstraZeneca, Bayer, Novartis, Sanofi Pasteur, GE Healthcare and GSK. H.G.C.V. has received clinical trial committee or consulting fees from 4TEEN4, Bayer, Medtronic and Novo Nordisk, as well as research support from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research and the Population Health Research Institute mid-career research award.