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Article History

Received: 21 August 2025

Accepted: 10 March 2026

First Online: 6 April 2026

Competing interests

: Over the past 3 years, E.C.S. has had grant funding to his institution from NIH; editing payments from Wolters–Kluwer; consulting fees from Eli Lilly and Company; medical devices supplied to his institution for his research by Masimo; and he has conducted medical–legal consultations. He also has served on the board of directors (unpaid) for a treatment program, Ashley Addiction Treatment. S.M.N. is a co-investigator on a Usona Institute sponsored trial of psilocybin for major depressive disorder. R.H.D. is the director and chair of the ACTTION management committee that funded this study and, since 1 January 2021, has received research grants and contracts from the US FDA and the US NIH, and compensation for serving on advisory boards or consulting on clinical trial methods from Acadia, Akigai, Allay, AM-Pharma, Analgesic Solutions, Beckley, Biogen, Biosplice, Bsense, Cardialen, Chiesi, Clexio, Collegium, CombiGene, Confo, Contineum, Eccogene, Editas, Eli Lilly, Emmes, Endo, Epizon, Ethismos (equity), Exicure, GlaxoSmithKline, Glenmark, Gloriana, JucaBio, Kriya, Mainstay, Merck, Mind Medicine (also equity), NeuroBo, Noema, OliPass, Orion, Oxford Cannabinoid Technologies, Pfizer, Q-State, Regenacy (also equity), Rho, Salvia, Sangamo, Semnur, SIMR Biotech, Sinfonia, SK Biopharmaceuticals, Sparian, SPM Therapeutics, SPRIM Health, Tiefenbacher, Validae, Vertex, Viscera and WCG. The other authors declare no competing interests.