Document is current

Article History

Received: 3 June 2025

Accepted: 16 April 2026

First Online: 15 June 2026

Competing interests

: M.P. declares support paid to the University of Liverpool from Health Data Research UK; grant funding from the Medical Research Council (MRC) and four industry partners (Roche, UCB, Eli Lilly and Novartis) for the MRC Clinical Pharmacology Training Scheme; and grant funding from the MRC and four industry partners (AstraZeneca, GlaxoSmithKline (GSK), Hammersmith Medicines Research and Optum) for the MRC Medicines Development Fellowship. M.P. developed an HLA genotyping panel with MC Diagnostics, funded by NIHR i4i (with no financial benefit), and received Innovative Medicines Initiative (IMI) funding for the ARDAT Consortium ( ). M.P. is a medical trustee for the British Heart Foundation, a council member for the MRC, chair of the Prix Galien Foundation UK, and chair of the Commission on Human Medicines (CHM). C.T. has received funding paid to University College London (UCL-GSK Phenomics Hub) from GSK and was previously an employee of LifeArc, both outside the scope of the submitted work. K.K. has acted as a consultant and speaker and has received grants for investigator-initiated studies from AstraZeneca, Bayer, Novo Nordisk, Sanofi-Aventis, Servier, Lilly, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Boehringer Ingelheim, Oramed Pharmaceuticals, Pfizer, Roche, Daiichi-Sankyo, Applied Therapeutics, Embecta, and Nestlé Health Science. N.S. has consulted for and/or received speaker honoraria from AbbVie, Amgen, AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Carmot Therapeutics, Eli Lilly, Gan & Lee, GSK, Hanmi Pharmaceuticals, Kailera, Mass Medicines, Menarini-Ricerche, Metsera, Novo Nordisk, Pfizer, Regeneron, Roche, UCB Pharma and Verdiva Bio, as well as grant support paid to his university from AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Novartis and Roche, outside the submitted work. S.D. reports institutional research funding from GSK (UCL-GSK Phenomics Hub), outside the submitted work. S.D. has acted as a consultant and speaker and has received grants from AstraZeneca and GSK. The other authors declare no competing interests.